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IN THIS ARTICLE
- Patient history; what to ask
- Cardiovascular risk factors
- Disposition pathway
- Oral medications
Approximately one in three US adults, or about 75 million people, have high blood pressure (BP), which has been defined as a BP of 140/90 mm Hg or higher.1 Unfortunately, only about half (54%) of those affected have their condition under optimal control.1 From an epidemiologic standpoint, hypertension has the distinction of being the most common chronic condition in the US, affecting about 54% of persons ages 55 to 64 and about 73% of those 75 and older.2,3 It is the number one reason patients schedule office visits with physicians; it accounts for the most prescriptions; and it is a major risk factor for heart disease and stroke, as well as a significant contributor to mortality throughout the world.4
HYPERTENSIVE URGENCY VS EMERGENCY
Hypertensive urgencies and emergencies account for approximately 27% of all medical emergencies and 2% to 3% of all annual visits to the emergency department (ED).5 Hypertensive urgency, or severe asymptomatic hypertension, is a common complaint in urgent care clinics and primary care offices as well. It is often defined as a systolic BP (SBP) of ≥ 160 mm Hg and/or a diastolic BP (DBP) ≥ 100 mm Hg with no associated end-organ damage.5-7 Patients may experience hypertensive urgency if they have been noncompliant with their antihypertensive drug regimen; present with pain; have white-coat hypertension or anxiety; or use recreational drugs (eg, sympathomimetics).5,8-10
Alternatively, hypertensive emergency, also known as hypertensive crisis, is generally defined as elevated BP > 180/120 mm Hg. Equally important, it is associated with signs, symptoms, or laboratory values indicative of target end-organ damage, such as cerebrovascular accident, myocardial infarction (MI), aortic dissection, acute left ventricular failure, acute pulmonary edema, acute renal failure, acute mental status changes (hypertensive encephalopathy), and eclampsia.5,7,8,11,12
Determining appropriate management for patients with hypertensive urgency is controversial among clinicians. Practice patterns range from full screening and “rule-outs”—with prompt initiation of antihypertensive agents, regardless of whether the patient is symptomatic—to sending the patient home with minimal screening, laboratory testing, or treatment.
This article offers a guided approach to managing patients with hypertensive urgency in a logical fashion, based on risk stratification, thereby avoiding both extremes (extensive unnecessary workup or discharge without workup resulting in adverse outcomes). It is vital to differentiate between patients with hypertensive emergency, in which BP should be lowered in minutes, and patients with hypertensive urgency, in which BP can be lowered more slowly.12
PATHOPHYSIOLOGY
Normally, when BP increases, blood vessel diameter changes in response; this autoregulation serves to limit damage. However, when BP increases abruptly, the body’s ability to hemodynamically calibrate to such a rapid change is impeded, thus allowing for potential end-organ damage.5,12 The increased vascular resistance observed in many patients with hypertension appears to be an autoregulatory process that helps to maintain a normal or viable level of tissue blood flow and organ perfusion despite the increased BP, rather than a primary cause of the hypertension.13
The exact physiology of hypertensive urgencies is not clearly understood, because of the multifactorial nature of the process. One leading theory is that circulating humoral vasoconstrictors cause an abrupt increase in systemic vascular resistance, which in turn causes mechanical shear stress to the endothelial wall. This endothelial damage promotes more vasoconstriction, platelet aggregation, and activation of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system, which thereby increases release of angiotensin II and various cytokines.14
HISTORY AND PHYSICAL
A detailed medical history is of utmost importance in distinguishing patients who present with asymptomatic hypertensive urgency from those experiencing a hypertensive emergency. In addition, obtain a full medication list, including any nutritional supplements or illicit drugs the patient may be taking. Question the patient regarding medication adherence; some may not be taking antihypertensive agents as prescribed or may have altered the dosing frequency in an effort to extend the duration of their prescription.5,8 Table 1 lists pertinent questions to ask at presentation; the answers will dictate who needs further workup and possible admission as well as who will require screening for end-organ damage.7
The physical exam should focus primarily on a thorough cardiopulmonary and neurologic examination, as well as funduscopic examination, if needed. A complete set of vital signs should be recorded upon the patient’s arrival to the ED or clinic and should be repeated on the opposite arm for verification. Beginning with the eyes, conduct a thorough funduscopic examination to evaluate for papilledema or hemorrhages.5 During the cardiopulmonary exam, attention should be focused on signs of congestive heart failure and/or pulmonary edema, such as increased jugular vein distension, an S3 gallop, peripheral edema, and pulmonary rales. The neurologic exam is essential in evaluating for cerebrovascular accident, transient ischemic attack, or intracranial hemorrhage. A full cranial nerve examination is necessary, in addition to motor and sensory testing, at minimum.5,9
RISK STRATIFICATION
According to the 2013 Task Force of the European Society of Hypertension (ESH) and the European Society of Cardiology (ESC), several risk factors contribute to overall cardiovascular risk in asymptomatic patients presenting with severe hypertension (see Table 2).8 This report has been monumental in linking grades of hypertension directly to cardiovascular risk factors, but it differs from that recently published by the Eighth Joint National Committee (JNC 8), which offers evidence-based guidelines for the management of high BP in the general population of adults (with some modifications for individuals with diabetes or chronic kidney disease or of black ethnicity).15
According to the ESH/ESC study, patients with one or two risk factors who have grade 1 hypertension (SBP 140-159 mm Hg) are at moderate risk for cardiovascular disease (CVD) and patients with grade 2 (SBP 160-179 mm Hg) or grade 3 (SBP ≥ 180 mm Hg) hypertension are at moderate-to-high risk and high risk, respectively.8 Patients with three or more risk factors, or who already have end-organ damage, diabetes, or chronic kidney disease, enter the high-risk category for CVD even at grade 1 hypertension.8
These cardiovascular risk factors can and should be used as guidelines for deciding who needs further screening and who may have benign causes of severe hypertension (eg, white-coat hypertension, anxiety) that can be managed safely in an outpatient setting. In the author’s opinion, patients with known cardiovascular risk factors, those with signs or symptoms of end-organ damage, and those with test results suggestive of end-organ damage should have a more immediate treatment strategy initiated.
Numerous observational studies have shown a direct relationship between systemic hypertension and CVD risk in men and women of various ages, races, and ethnicities, regardless of other risk factors for CVD.12 In patients with diabetes, uncontrolled hypertension is a strong predictor of cardiovascular morbidity and mortality and of progressive nephropathy leading to chronic kidney disease.8
SCREENING
Results from the following tests may provide useful clues in the workup of a patient with hypertensive urgency.
Basic metabolic panel. Many EDs and primary care offices offer point-of-care testing that can typically give a rapid (< 10 min) result of a basic metabolic panel. This useful, quick screening tool can identify renal failure due to chronic untreated hypertension, acute renal failure, or other disease states that cause electrolyte abnormalities such as hyperaldosteronism (hypertension with hypokalemia) or Cushing syndrome (hypertension with hypernatremia and hyperkalemia).7
Cardiac enzymes. Measurement of cardiac troponins (T or I) may provide confirmatory evidence of myocardial necrosis within two to three hours of suspected acute MI.16,17 These tests are now available in most EDs and some clinics with point-of-care testing. A variety of current guidelines advocate repeat cardiac enzyme measurements at various time points, depending on results of initial testing and concomitant risk factors. These protocols vary by facility.
ECG. Obtaining an ECG is another quick, easy, and useful way to screen patients presenting with severe hypertensive urgency. Evidence of left ventricular hypertrophy suggests an increased risk for MI, stroke, heart failure, and sudden death.7,18-20 The Cornell criteria of summing the R wave in aVL and the S wave in V3, with a cutoff of 2.8 mV in men and 2.0 mV in women, has been shown to be the best predictor of future cardiovascular mortality.7 While an isolated finding of left ventricular hypertrophy on an ECG—in and of itself—may have limited value for an individual patient, this finding coupled with other risk factors may alter the provider’s assessment.
Chest radiograph. A chest radiograph can be helpful when used in conjunction with physical exam findings that suggest pulmonary edema and cardiomegaly.7 Widened mediastinum and tortuous aorta may also be evident on chest x-ray, necessitating further workup and imaging.
Urinalysis. In a patient presenting with asymptomatic hypertensive urgency, a urine dipstick result that shows new-onset proteinuria, while not definitive for diagnosis of nephrotic syndrome, may certainly prove helpful in the patient’s workup.5,13
Urine drug screen. In patients without a history of hypertension who present with asymptomatic hypertensive urgency, the urine drug screen may ascertain exposure to cocaine, amphetamine, or phencyclidine.
Pregnancy test. A pregnancy test is essential for any female patient of childbearing age presenting to the ED, and a positive result may be concerning for preeclampsia in a hypertensive patient with no prior history of the condition.7
TREATMENT
Knowing who to treat and when is a vast area of debate among emergency and primary care providers. Patients with hypertension who have established risk factors are known to have worse outcomes than those who may be otherwise healthy. Some clinicians believe that patients presenting with hypertensive urgency should be discharged home without screening and/or treatment. However, because uncontrolled severe hypertension can lead to acute complications (eg, MI, cerebrovascular accident), in practice, many providers are unwilling to send the patient home without workup.12 The patient’s condition must be viewed in the context of the entire disease spectrum, including risk factors.
The Figure offers a disposition pathway of recommendations based on risk stratification as well as screening tools for some of the less common causes of hypertensive urgency. Regardless of the results of screening tests or the decision to treat, affected patients require close primary care follow-up. Many of these patients may need further testing and careful management of their BP medication regimen.
How to treat
For patients with severe asymptomatic hypertension, if the history, physical, and screening tests do not show evidence of end-organ damage, BP can be controlled within 24 to 48 hours.5,10,11,21 In adults with hypertensive urgency, the most reasonable goal is to reduce the BP to ≤ 160/100 mm Hg5-7; however, the mean arterial pressure should not be lowered by more than 25% within the first two to three hours.13
Patients at high risk for imminent neurovascular, cardiovascular, renovascular, or pulmonary events should have their BP lowered over a period of hours, not minutes. In fact, there is evidence that rapid lowering of BP in asymptomatic patients may cause adverse outcomes.6 For example, in patients with acute ischemic stroke, increases in cerebral perfusion pressure promote an increase in vascular resistance—but decreasing the cerebral perfusion pressure abruptly will thereby decrease the cerebral blood flow, potentially causing cerebral ischemia or a worsening of the stroke.9,14
Treatment options
A broad spectrum of therapeutic options has proven helpful in lowering BP over a short period of time, including oral captopril, clonidine, hydralazine, labetalol, and hydrochlorothiazide (see Table 3).7,9,12,15 Nifedipine is contraindicated because of the abrupt and often unpredictable reduction in BP and associated myocardial ischemia, especially in patients with MI or left ventricular hypertrophy.14,22,23 In cases of hypertensive urgency secondary to cocaine abuse, benzodiazepines would be the drug of choice and ß-blockers should be avoided due to the risk for coronary vasoconstriction.7
For patients with previously treated hypertension, the following options are reasonable: Increase the dose of the current antihypertensive medication; add another agent; reinstitute prior antihypertensive medications in nonadherent patients; or add a diuretic.
In patients with previously untreated hypertension, no clear evidence supports using one particular agent over another. However, initial treatment options that are generally considered safe include an ACE inhibitor, an angiotensin receptor blocker, a calcium channel blocker, or a thiazide diuretic.15 A few examples of medications within these categories include lisinopril (10 mg PO qd), losartan (50 mg PO qd), amlodipine (2.5 mg PO qd), or hydrochlorothiazide (25 mg PO qd).
Close follow-up is essential when an antihypertensive medication is started or reinstituted. Encourage the patient to reestablish care with their primary care provider (if you do not fill that role). You may need to refer the patient to a new provider or, in some cases, have the patient return to the ED for a repeat BP check.
CONCLUSION
The challenges of managing patients with hypertensive urgency are complicated by low follow-up rates with primary physicians, difficulty in obtaining referrals and follow-up for the patient, and hesitancy of providers to start patients on new BP medications. This article clarifies a well-defined algorithm for how to screen and risk-stratify patients who present to the ED or primary care office with hypertensive urgency.
1. CDC. High blood pressure fact sheet. www.cdc.gov/dhdsp/data_statistics/fact_sheets/fs_bloodpressure.htm. Accessed September 26, 2017.
2. Decker WW, Godwin SA, Hess EP, et al; American College of Emergency Physicians Clinical Policies Subcommittee (Writing Committee) on Asymptomatic Hypertension in the ED. Clinical policy: critical issues in the evaluation and management of adult patients with asymptomatic hypertension in the emergency department. Ann Emerg Med. 2006;47(3):237-249.
3. CDC. High blood pressure facts. www.cdc.gov/bloodpressure/facts.htm. Accessed October 19, 2017.
4. World Health Organization. Global Health Risks: Mortality and Burden of Disease Attributable to Selected Major Risks. Geneva, Switzerland: WHO; 2009. www.who.int/healthinfo/global_burden_disease/GlobalHealthRisks_report_full.pdf. Accessed October 19, 2017.
5. Stewart DL, Feinstein SE, Colgan R. Hypertensive urgencies and emergencies. Prim Care. 2006;33(3):613-623.
6. Wolf SJ, Lo B, Shih RD, et al; American College of Emergency Physicians Clinical Policies Committee. Clinical policy: critical issues in the evaluation and management of adult patients in the emergency department with asymptomatic elevated blood pressure. Ann Emerg Med. 2013;62(1):59-68.
7. McKinnon M, O’Neill JM. Hypertension in the emergency department: treat now, later, or not at all. Emerg Med Pract. 2010;12(6):1-22.
8. Mancia G, Fagard R, Narkiewicz K, et al. 2013 ESH/ESC Guidelines for the management of arterial hypertension: the Task Force for the management of arterial hypertension of the European Society of Hypertension (ESH) and of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC). J Hypertens. 2013;31(7): 1281-1357.
9. Shayne PH, Pitts SR. Severely increased blood pressure in the emergency department. Ann Emerg Med. 2003;41(4): 513-529.
10. Aggarwal M, Khan IA. Hypertensive crisis: hypertensive emergencies and urgencies. Cardiol Clin. 2006;24(1):135-146.
11. Houston MC. The comparative effects of clonidine hydrochloride and nifedipine in the treatment of hypertensive crises. Am Heart J. 1998;115(1 pt 1):152-159.
12. Kitiyakara C, Guaman NJ. Malignant hypertension and hypertensive emergencies. J Am Soc Nephrol. 1998;9(1):133-142.
13. Elliott WJ. Hypertensive emergencies. Crit Care Clin. 2001;17(2):435-451.
14. Papadopoulos DP, Mourouzis I, Thomopoulos C, et al. Hypertension crisis. Blood Press. 2010;19(6):328-336.
15. James PA, Oparil S, Carter BL, et al. 2014 evidence-based guideline for the management of high blood pressure in adults: report from the panel members appointed to the Eighth Joint National Committee (JNC 8). JAMA. 2014;311(5):507-520.
16. Keller T, Zeller T, Peetz D, et al. Sensitive troponin I assay in early diagnosis of acute myocardial infarction. N Engl J Med. 2009;361(9):868-877.
17. Reichlin T, Hochholzer W, Bassetti S, et al. Early diagnosis of myocardial infarction with sensitive cardiac troponin assays. N Engl J Med. 2009;361(9):858-867.
18. Ghali JK, Kadakia S, Cooper RS, Liao YL. Impact of left ventricular hypertrophy on ventricular arrhythmias in the absence of coronary artery disease. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1991;17(6):1277-1282.
19. Bang CN, Soliman EZ, Simpson LM, et al. Electrocardiographic left ventricular hypertrophy predicts cardiovascular morbidity and mortality in hypertensive patients: the ALLHAT study. Am J Hypertens. 2017;30(9):914-922.
20. Hsieh BP, Pham MX, Froelicher VF. Prognostic value of electrocardiographic criteria for left ventricular hypertrophy. Am Heart J. 2005;150(1):161-167.
21. Kinsella K, Baraff LJ. Initiation of therapy for asymptomatic hypertension in the emergency department. Ann Emerg Med. 2009;54(6):791-792.
22. O’Mailia JJ, Sander GE, Giles TD. Nifedipine-associated myocardial ischemia or infarction in the treatment of hypertensive urgencies. Ann Intern Med. 1987;107(2):185-186.
23. Grossman E, Messerli FH, Grodzicki T, Kowey P. Should a moratorium be placed on sublingual nifedipine capsules given for hypertensive emergencies and pseudoemergencies? JAMA. 1996;276(16):1328-1331.
IN THIS ARTICLE
- Patient history; what to ask
- Cardiovascular risk factors
- Disposition pathway
- Oral medications
Approximately one in three US adults, or about 75 million people, have high blood pressure (BP), which has been defined as a BP of 140/90 mm Hg or higher.1 Unfortunately, only about half (54%) of those affected have their condition under optimal control.1 From an epidemiologic standpoint, hypertension has the distinction of being the most common chronic condition in the US, affecting about 54% of persons ages 55 to 64 and about 73% of those 75 and older.2,3 It is the number one reason patients schedule office visits with physicians; it accounts for the most prescriptions; and it is a major risk factor for heart disease and stroke, as well as a significant contributor to mortality throughout the world.4
HYPERTENSIVE URGENCY VS EMERGENCY
Hypertensive urgencies and emergencies account for approximately 27% of all medical emergencies and 2% to 3% of all annual visits to the emergency department (ED).5 Hypertensive urgency, or severe asymptomatic hypertension, is a common complaint in urgent care clinics and primary care offices as well. It is often defined as a systolic BP (SBP) of ≥ 160 mm Hg and/or a diastolic BP (DBP) ≥ 100 mm Hg with no associated end-organ damage.5-7 Patients may experience hypertensive urgency if they have been noncompliant with their antihypertensive drug regimen; present with pain; have white-coat hypertension or anxiety; or use recreational drugs (eg, sympathomimetics).5,8-10
Alternatively, hypertensive emergency, also known as hypertensive crisis, is generally defined as elevated BP > 180/120 mm Hg. Equally important, it is associated with signs, symptoms, or laboratory values indicative of target end-organ damage, such as cerebrovascular accident, myocardial infarction (MI), aortic dissection, acute left ventricular failure, acute pulmonary edema, acute renal failure, acute mental status changes (hypertensive encephalopathy), and eclampsia.5,7,8,11,12
Determining appropriate management for patients with hypertensive urgency is controversial among clinicians. Practice patterns range from full screening and “rule-outs”—with prompt initiation of antihypertensive agents, regardless of whether the patient is symptomatic—to sending the patient home with minimal screening, laboratory testing, or treatment.
This article offers a guided approach to managing patients with hypertensive urgency in a logical fashion, based on risk stratification, thereby avoiding both extremes (extensive unnecessary workup or discharge without workup resulting in adverse outcomes). It is vital to differentiate between patients with hypertensive emergency, in which BP should be lowered in minutes, and patients with hypertensive urgency, in which BP can be lowered more slowly.12
PATHOPHYSIOLOGY
Normally, when BP increases, blood vessel diameter changes in response; this autoregulation serves to limit damage. However, when BP increases abruptly, the body’s ability to hemodynamically calibrate to such a rapid change is impeded, thus allowing for potential end-organ damage.5,12 The increased vascular resistance observed in many patients with hypertension appears to be an autoregulatory process that helps to maintain a normal or viable level of tissue blood flow and organ perfusion despite the increased BP, rather than a primary cause of the hypertension.13
The exact physiology of hypertensive urgencies is not clearly understood, because of the multifactorial nature of the process. One leading theory is that circulating humoral vasoconstrictors cause an abrupt increase in systemic vascular resistance, which in turn causes mechanical shear stress to the endothelial wall. This endothelial damage promotes more vasoconstriction, platelet aggregation, and activation of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system, which thereby increases release of angiotensin II and various cytokines.14
HISTORY AND PHYSICAL
A detailed medical history is of utmost importance in distinguishing patients who present with asymptomatic hypertensive urgency from those experiencing a hypertensive emergency. In addition, obtain a full medication list, including any nutritional supplements or illicit drugs the patient may be taking. Question the patient regarding medication adherence; some may not be taking antihypertensive agents as prescribed or may have altered the dosing frequency in an effort to extend the duration of their prescription.5,8 Table 1 lists pertinent questions to ask at presentation; the answers will dictate who needs further workup and possible admission as well as who will require screening for end-organ damage.7
The physical exam should focus primarily on a thorough cardiopulmonary and neurologic examination, as well as funduscopic examination, if needed. A complete set of vital signs should be recorded upon the patient’s arrival to the ED or clinic and should be repeated on the opposite arm for verification. Beginning with the eyes, conduct a thorough funduscopic examination to evaluate for papilledema or hemorrhages.5 During the cardiopulmonary exam, attention should be focused on signs of congestive heart failure and/or pulmonary edema, such as increased jugular vein distension, an S3 gallop, peripheral edema, and pulmonary rales. The neurologic exam is essential in evaluating for cerebrovascular accident, transient ischemic attack, or intracranial hemorrhage. A full cranial nerve examination is necessary, in addition to motor and sensory testing, at minimum.5,9
RISK STRATIFICATION
According to the 2013 Task Force of the European Society of Hypertension (ESH) and the European Society of Cardiology (ESC), several risk factors contribute to overall cardiovascular risk in asymptomatic patients presenting with severe hypertension (see Table 2).8 This report has been monumental in linking grades of hypertension directly to cardiovascular risk factors, but it differs from that recently published by the Eighth Joint National Committee (JNC 8), which offers evidence-based guidelines for the management of high BP in the general population of adults (with some modifications for individuals with diabetes or chronic kidney disease or of black ethnicity).15
According to the ESH/ESC study, patients with one or two risk factors who have grade 1 hypertension (SBP 140-159 mm Hg) are at moderate risk for cardiovascular disease (CVD) and patients with grade 2 (SBP 160-179 mm Hg) or grade 3 (SBP ≥ 180 mm Hg) hypertension are at moderate-to-high risk and high risk, respectively.8 Patients with three or more risk factors, or who already have end-organ damage, diabetes, or chronic kidney disease, enter the high-risk category for CVD even at grade 1 hypertension.8
These cardiovascular risk factors can and should be used as guidelines for deciding who needs further screening and who may have benign causes of severe hypertension (eg, white-coat hypertension, anxiety) that can be managed safely in an outpatient setting. In the author’s opinion, patients with known cardiovascular risk factors, those with signs or symptoms of end-organ damage, and those with test results suggestive of end-organ damage should have a more immediate treatment strategy initiated.
Numerous observational studies have shown a direct relationship between systemic hypertension and CVD risk in men and women of various ages, races, and ethnicities, regardless of other risk factors for CVD.12 In patients with diabetes, uncontrolled hypertension is a strong predictor of cardiovascular morbidity and mortality and of progressive nephropathy leading to chronic kidney disease.8
SCREENING
Results from the following tests may provide useful clues in the workup of a patient with hypertensive urgency.
Basic metabolic panel. Many EDs and primary care offices offer point-of-care testing that can typically give a rapid (< 10 min) result of a basic metabolic panel. This useful, quick screening tool can identify renal failure due to chronic untreated hypertension, acute renal failure, or other disease states that cause electrolyte abnormalities such as hyperaldosteronism (hypertension with hypokalemia) or Cushing syndrome (hypertension with hypernatremia and hyperkalemia).7
Cardiac enzymes. Measurement of cardiac troponins (T or I) may provide confirmatory evidence of myocardial necrosis within two to three hours of suspected acute MI.16,17 These tests are now available in most EDs and some clinics with point-of-care testing. A variety of current guidelines advocate repeat cardiac enzyme measurements at various time points, depending on results of initial testing and concomitant risk factors. These protocols vary by facility.
ECG. Obtaining an ECG is another quick, easy, and useful way to screen patients presenting with severe hypertensive urgency. Evidence of left ventricular hypertrophy suggests an increased risk for MI, stroke, heart failure, and sudden death.7,18-20 The Cornell criteria of summing the R wave in aVL and the S wave in V3, with a cutoff of 2.8 mV in men and 2.0 mV in women, has been shown to be the best predictor of future cardiovascular mortality.7 While an isolated finding of left ventricular hypertrophy on an ECG—in and of itself—may have limited value for an individual patient, this finding coupled with other risk factors may alter the provider’s assessment.
Chest radiograph. A chest radiograph can be helpful when used in conjunction with physical exam findings that suggest pulmonary edema and cardiomegaly.7 Widened mediastinum and tortuous aorta may also be evident on chest x-ray, necessitating further workup and imaging.
Urinalysis. In a patient presenting with asymptomatic hypertensive urgency, a urine dipstick result that shows new-onset proteinuria, while not definitive for diagnosis of nephrotic syndrome, may certainly prove helpful in the patient’s workup.5,13
Urine drug screen. In patients without a history of hypertension who present with asymptomatic hypertensive urgency, the urine drug screen may ascertain exposure to cocaine, amphetamine, or phencyclidine.
Pregnancy test. A pregnancy test is essential for any female patient of childbearing age presenting to the ED, and a positive result may be concerning for preeclampsia in a hypertensive patient with no prior history of the condition.7
TREATMENT
Knowing who to treat and when is a vast area of debate among emergency and primary care providers. Patients with hypertension who have established risk factors are known to have worse outcomes than those who may be otherwise healthy. Some clinicians believe that patients presenting with hypertensive urgency should be discharged home without screening and/or treatment. However, because uncontrolled severe hypertension can lead to acute complications (eg, MI, cerebrovascular accident), in practice, many providers are unwilling to send the patient home without workup.12 The patient’s condition must be viewed in the context of the entire disease spectrum, including risk factors.
The Figure offers a disposition pathway of recommendations based on risk stratification as well as screening tools for some of the less common causes of hypertensive urgency. Regardless of the results of screening tests or the decision to treat, affected patients require close primary care follow-up. Many of these patients may need further testing and careful management of their BP medication regimen.
How to treat
For patients with severe asymptomatic hypertension, if the history, physical, and screening tests do not show evidence of end-organ damage, BP can be controlled within 24 to 48 hours.5,10,11,21 In adults with hypertensive urgency, the most reasonable goal is to reduce the BP to ≤ 160/100 mm Hg5-7; however, the mean arterial pressure should not be lowered by more than 25% within the first two to three hours.13
Patients at high risk for imminent neurovascular, cardiovascular, renovascular, or pulmonary events should have their BP lowered over a period of hours, not minutes. In fact, there is evidence that rapid lowering of BP in asymptomatic patients may cause adverse outcomes.6 For example, in patients with acute ischemic stroke, increases in cerebral perfusion pressure promote an increase in vascular resistance—but decreasing the cerebral perfusion pressure abruptly will thereby decrease the cerebral blood flow, potentially causing cerebral ischemia or a worsening of the stroke.9,14
Treatment options
A broad spectrum of therapeutic options has proven helpful in lowering BP over a short period of time, including oral captopril, clonidine, hydralazine, labetalol, and hydrochlorothiazide (see Table 3).7,9,12,15 Nifedipine is contraindicated because of the abrupt and often unpredictable reduction in BP and associated myocardial ischemia, especially in patients with MI or left ventricular hypertrophy.14,22,23 In cases of hypertensive urgency secondary to cocaine abuse, benzodiazepines would be the drug of choice and ß-blockers should be avoided due to the risk for coronary vasoconstriction.7
For patients with previously treated hypertension, the following options are reasonable: Increase the dose of the current antihypertensive medication; add another agent; reinstitute prior antihypertensive medications in nonadherent patients; or add a diuretic.
In patients with previously untreated hypertension, no clear evidence supports using one particular agent over another. However, initial treatment options that are generally considered safe include an ACE inhibitor, an angiotensin receptor blocker, a calcium channel blocker, or a thiazide diuretic.15 A few examples of medications within these categories include lisinopril (10 mg PO qd), losartan (50 mg PO qd), amlodipine (2.5 mg PO qd), or hydrochlorothiazide (25 mg PO qd).
Close follow-up is essential when an antihypertensive medication is started or reinstituted. Encourage the patient to reestablish care with their primary care provider (if you do not fill that role). You may need to refer the patient to a new provider or, in some cases, have the patient return to the ED for a repeat BP check.
CONCLUSION
The challenges of managing patients with hypertensive urgency are complicated by low follow-up rates with primary physicians, difficulty in obtaining referrals and follow-up for the patient, and hesitancy of providers to start patients on new BP medications. This article clarifies a well-defined algorithm for how to screen and risk-stratify patients who present to the ED or primary care office with hypertensive urgency.
IN THIS ARTICLE
- Patient history; what to ask
- Cardiovascular risk factors
- Disposition pathway
- Oral medications
Approximately one in three US adults, or about 75 million people, have high blood pressure (BP), which has been defined as a BP of 140/90 mm Hg or higher.1 Unfortunately, only about half (54%) of those affected have their condition under optimal control.1 From an epidemiologic standpoint, hypertension has the distinction of being the most common chronic condition in the US, affecting about 54% of persons ages 55 to 64 and about 73% of those 75 and older.2,3 It is the number one reason patients schedule office visits with physicians; it accounts for the most prescriptions; and it is a major risk factor for heart disease and stroke, as well as a significant contributor to mortality throughout the world.4
HYPERTENSIVE URGENCY VS EMERGENCY
Hypertensive urgencies and emergencies account for approximately 27% of all medical emergencies and 2% to 3% of all annual visits to the emergency department (ED).5 Hypertensive urgency, or severe asymptomatic hypertension, is a common complaint in urgent care clinics and primary care offices as well. It is often defined as a systolic BP (SBP) of ≥ 160 mm Hg and/or a diastolic BP (DBP) ≥ 100 mm Hg with no associated end-organ damage.5-7 Patients may experience hypertensive urgency if they have been noncompliant with their antihypertensive drug regimen; present with pain; have white-coat hypertension or anxiety; or use recreational drugs (eg, sympathomimetics).5,8-10
Alternatively, hypertensive emergency, also known as hypertensive crisis, is generally defined as elevated BP > 180/120 mm Hg. Equally important, it is associated with signs, symptoms, or laboratory values indicative of target end-organ damage, such as cerebrovascular accident, myocardial infarction (MI), aortic dissection, acute left ventricular failure, acute pulmonary edema, acute renal failure, acute mental status changes (hypertensive encephalopathy), and eclampsia.5,7,8,11,12
Determining appropriate management for patients with hypertensive urgency is controversial among clinicians. Practice patterns range from full screening and “rule-outs”—with prompt initiation of antihypertensive agents, regardless of whether the patient is symptomatic—to sending the patient home with minimal screening, laboratory testing, or treatment.
This article offers a guided approach to managing patients with hypertensive urgency in a logical fashion, based on risk stratification, thereby avoiding both extremes (extensive unnecessary workup or discharge without workup resulting in adverse outcomes). It is vital to differentiate between patients with hypertensive emergency, in which BP should be lowered in minutes, and patients with hypertensive urgency, in which BP can be lowered more slowly.12
PATHOPHYSIOLOGY
Normally, when BP increases, blood vessel diameter changes in response; this autoregulation serves to limit damage. However, when BP increases abruptly, the body’s ability to hemodynamically calibrate to such a rapid change is impeded, thus allowing for potential end-organ damage.5,12 The increased vascular resistance observed in many patients with hypertension appears to be an autoregulatory process that helps to maintain a normal or viable level of tissue blood flow and organ perfusion despite the increased BP, rather than a primary cause of the hypertension.13
The exact physiology of hypertensive urgencies is not clearly understood, because of the multifactorial nature of the process. One leading theory is that circulating humoral vasoconstrictors cause an abrupt increase in systemic vascular resistance, which in turn causes mechanical shear stress to the endothelial wall. This endothelial damage promotes more vasoconstriction, platelet aggregation, and activation of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system, which thereby increases release of angiotensin II and various cytokines.14
HISTORY AND PHYSICAL
A detailed medical history is of utmost importance in distinguishing patients who present with asymptomatic hypertensive urgency from those experiencing a hypertensive emergency. In addition, obtain a full medication list, including any nutritional supplements or illicit drugs the patient may be taking. Question the patient regarding medication adherence; some may not be taking antihypertensive agents as prescribed or may have altered the dosing frequency in an effort to extend the duration of their prescription.5,8 Table 1 lists pertinent questions to ask at presentation; the answers will dictate who needs further workup and possible admission as well as who will require screening for end-organ damage.7
The physical exam should focus primarily on a thorough cardiopulmonary and neurologic examination, as well as funduscopic examination, if needed. A complete set of vital signs should be recorded upon the patient’s arrival to the ED or clinic and should be repeated on the opposite arm for verification. Beginning with the eyes, conduct a thorough funduscopic examination to evaluate for papilledema or hemorrhages.5 During the cardiopulmonary exam, attention should be focused on signs of congestive heart failure and/or pulmonary edema, such as increased jugular vein distension, an S3 gallop, peripheral edema, and pulmonary rales. The neurologic exam is essential in evaluating for cerebrovascular accident, transient ischemic attack, or intracranial hemorrhage. A full cranial nerve examination is necessary, in addition to motor and sensory testing, at minimum.5,9
RISK STRATIFICATION
According to the 2013 Task Force of the European Society of Hypertension (ESH) and the European Society of Cardiology (ESC), several risk factors contribute to overall cardiovascular risk in asymptomatic patients presenting with severe hypertension (see Table 2).8 This report has been monumental in linking grades of hypertension directly to cardiovascular risk factors, but it differs from that recently published by the Eighth Joint National Committee (JNC 8), which offers evidence-based guidelines for the management of high BP in the general population of adults (with some modifications for individuals with diabetes or chronic kidney disease or of black ethnicity).15
According to the ESH/ESC study, patients with one or two risk factors who have grade 1 hypertension (SBP 140-159 mm Hg) are at moderate risk for cardiovascular disease (CVD) and patients with grade 2 (SBP 160-179 mm Hg) or grade 3 (SBP ≥ 180 mm Hg) hypertension are at moderate-to-high risk and high risk, respectively.8 Patients with three or more risk factors, or who already have end-organ damage, diabetes, or chronic kidney disease, enter the high-risk category for CVD even at grade 1 hypertension.8
These cardiovascular risk factors can and should be used as guidelines for deciding who needs further screening and who may have benign causes of severe hypertension (eg, white-coat hypertension, anxiety) that can be managed safely in an outpatient setting. In the author’s opinion, patients with known cardiovascular risk factors, those with signs or symptoms of end-organ damage, and those with test results suggestive of end-organ damage should have a more immediate treatment strategy initiated.
Numerous observational studies have shown a direct relationship between systemic hypertension and CVD risk in men and women of various ages, races, and ethnicities, regardless of other risk factors for CVD.12 In patients with diabetes, uncontrolled hypertension is a strong predictor of cardiovascular morbidity and mortality and of progressive nephropathy leading to chronic kidney disease.8
SCREENING
Results from the following tests may provide useful clues in the workup of a patient with hypertensive urgency.
Basic metabolic panel. Many EDs and primary care offices offer point-of-care testing that can typically give a rapid (< 10 min) result of a basic metabolic panel. This useful, quick screening tool can identify renal failure due to chronic untreated hypertension, acute renal failure, or other disease states that cause electrolyte abnormalities such as hyperaldosteronism (hypertension with hypokalemia) or Cushing syndrome (hypertension with hypernatremia and hyperkalemia).7
Cardiac enzymes. Measurement of cardiac troponins (T or I) may provide confirmatory evidence of myocardial necrosis within two to three hours of suspected acute MI.16,17 These tests are now available in most EDs and some clinics with point-of-care testing. A variety of current guidelines advocate repeat cardiac enzyme measurements at various time points, depending on results of initial testing and concomitant risk factors. These protocols vary by facility.
ECG. Obtaining an ECG is another quick, easy, and useful way to screen patients presenting with severe hypertensive urgency. Evidence of left ventricular hypertrophy suggests an increased risk for MI, stroke, heart failure, and sudden death.7,18-20 The Cornell criteria of summing the R wave in aVL and the S wave in V3, with a cutoff of 2.8 mV in men and 2.0 mV in women, has been shown to be the best predictor of future cardiovascular mortality.7 While an isolated finding of left ventricular hypertrophy on an ECG—in and of itself—may have limited value for an individual patient, this finding coupled with other risk factors may alter the provider’s assessment.
Chest radiograph. A chest radiograph can be helpful when used in conjunction with physical exam findings that suggest pulmonary edema and cardiomegaly.7 Widened mediastinum and tortuous aorta may also be evident on chest x-ray, necessitating further workup and imaging.
Urinalysis. In a patient presenting with asymptomatic hypertensive urgency, a urine dipstick result that shows new-onset proteinuria, while not definitive for diagnosis of nephrotic syndrome, may certainly prove helpful in the patient’s workup.5,13
Urine drug screen. In patients without a history of hypertension who present with asymptomatic hypertensive urgency, the urine drug screen may ascertain exposure to cocaine, amphetamine, or phencyclidine.
Pregnancy test. A pregnancy test is essential for any female patient of childbearing age presenting to the ED, and a positive result may be concerning for preeclampsia in a hypertensive patient with no prior history of the condition.7
TREATMENT
Knowing who to treat and when is a vast area of debate among emergency and primary care providers. Patients with hypertension who have established risk factors are known to have worse outcomes than those who may be otherwise healthy. Some clinicians believe that patients presenting with hypertensive urgency should be discharged home without screening and/or treatment. However, because uncontrolled severe hypertension can lead to acute complications (eg, MI, cerebrovascular accident), in practice, many providers are unwilling to send the patient home without workup.12 The patient’s condition must be viewed in the context of the entire disease spectrum, including risk factors.
The Figure offers a disposition pathway of recommendations based on risk stratification as well as screening tools for some of the less common causes of hypertensive urgency. Regardless of the results of screening tests or the decision to treat, affected patients require close primary care follow-up. Many of these patients may need further testing and careful management of their BP medication regimen.
How to treat
For patients with severe asymptomatic hypertension, if the history, physical, and screening tests do not show evidence of end-organ damage, BP can be controlled within 24 to 48 hours.5,10,11,21 In adults with hypertensive urgency, the most reasonable goal is to reduce the BP to ≤ 160/100 mm Hg5-7; however, the mean arterial pressure should not be lowered by more than 25% within the first two to three hours.13
Patients at high risk for imminent neurovascular, cardiovascular, renovascular, or pulmonary events should have their BP lowered over a period of hours, not minutes. In fact, there is evidence that rapid lowering of BP in asymptomatic patients may cause adverse outcomes.6 For example, in patients with acute ischemic stroke, increases in cerebral perfusion pressure promote an increase in vascular resistance—but decreasing the cerebral perfusion pressure abruptly will thereby decrease the cerebral blood flow, potentially causing cerebral ischemia or a worsening of the stroke.9,14
Treatment options
A broad spectrum of therapeutic options has proven helpful in lowering BP over a short period of time, including oral captopril, clonidine, hydralazine, labetalol, and hydrochlorothiazide (see Table 3).7,9,12,15 Nifedipine is contraindicated because of the abrupt and often unpredictable reduction in BP and associated myocardial ischemia, especially in patients with MI or left ventricular hypertrophy.14,22,23 In cases of hypertensive urgency secondary to cocaine abuse, benzodiazepines would be the drug of choice and ß-blockers should be avoided due to the risk for coronary vasoconstriction.7
For patients with previously treated hypertension, the following options are reasonable: Increase the dose of the current antihypertensive medication; add another agent; reinstitute prior antihypertensive medications in nonadherent patients; or add a diuretic.
In patients with previously untreated hypertension, no clear evidence supports using one particular agent over another. However, initial treatment options that are generally considered safe include an ACE inhibitor, an angiotensin receptor blocker, a calcium channel blocker, or a thiazide diuretic.15 A few examples of medications within these categories include lisinopril (10 mg PO qd), losartan (50 mg PO qd), amlodipine (2.5 mg PO qd), or hydrochlorothiazide (25 mg PO qd).
Close follow-up is essential when an antihypertensive medication is started or reinstituted. Encourage the patient to reestablish care with their primary care provider (if you do not fill that role). You may need to refer the patient to a new provider or, in some cases, have the patient return to the ED for a repeat BP check.
CONCLUSION
The challenges of managing patients with hypertensive urgency are complicated by low follow-up rates with primary physicians, difficulty in obtaining referrals and follow-up for the patient, and hesitancy of providers to start patients on new BP medications. This article clarifies a well-defined algorithm for how to screen and risk-stratify patients who present to the ED or primary care office with hypertensive urgency.
1. CDC. High blood pressure fact sheet. www.cdc.gov/dhdsp/data_statistics/fact_sheets/fs_bloodpressure.htm. Accessed September 26, 2017.
2. Decker WW, Godwin SA, Hess EP, et al; American College of Emergency Physicians Clinical Policies Subcommittee (Writing Committee) on Asymptomatic Hypertension in the ED. Clinical policy: critical issues in the evaluation and management of adult patients with asymptomatic hypertension in the emergency department. Ann Emerg Med. 2006;47(3):237-249.
3. CDC. High blood pressure facts. www.cdc.gov/bloodpressure/facts.htm. Accessed October 19, 2017.
4. World Health Organization. Global Health Risks: Mortality and Burden of Disease Attributable to Selected Major Risks. Geneva, Switzerland: WHO; 2009. www.who.int/healthinfo/global_burden_disease/GlobalHealthRisks_report_full.pdf. Accessed October 19, 2017.
5. Stewart DL, Feinstein SE, Colgan R. Hypertensive urgencies and emergencies. Prim Care. 2006;33(3):613-623.
6. Wolf SJ, Lo B, Shih RD, et al; American College of Emergency Physicians Clinical Policies Committee. Clinical policy: critical issues in the evaluation and management of adult patients in the emergency department with asymptomatic elevated blood pressure. Ann Emerg Med. 2013;62(1):59-68.
7. McKinnon M, O’Neill JM. Hypertension in the emergency department: treat now, later, or not at all. Emerg Med Pract. 2010;12(6):1-22.
8. Mancia G, Fagard R, Narkiewicz K, et al. 2013 ESH/ESC Guidelines for the management of arterial hypertension: the Task Force for the management of arterial hypertension of the European Society of Hypertension (ESH) and of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC). J Hypertens. 2013;31(7): 1281-1357.
9. Shayne PH, Pitts SR. Severely increased blood pressure in the emergency department. Ann Emerg Med. 2003;41(4): 513-529.
10. Aggarwal M, Khan IA. Hypertensive crisis: hypertensive emergencies and urgencies. Cardiol Clin. 2006;24(1):135-146.
11. Houston MC. The comparative effects of clonidine hydrochloride and nifedipine in the treatment of hypertensive crises. Am Heart J. 1998;115(1 pt 1):152-159.
12. Kitiyakara C, Guaman NJ. Malignant hypertension and hypertensive emergencies. J Am Soc Nephrol. 1998;9(1):133-142.
13. Elliott WJ. Hypertensive emergencies. Crit Care Clin. 2001;17(2):435-451.
14. Papadopoulos DP, Mourouzis I, Thomopoulos C, et al. Hypertension crisis. Blood Press. 2010;19(6):328-336.
15. James PA, Oparil S, Carter BL, et al. 2014 evidence-based guideline for the management of high blood pressure in adults: report from the panel members appointed to the Eighth Joint National Committee (JNC 8). JAMA. 2014;311(5):507-520.
16. Keller T, Zeller T, Peetz D, et al. Sensitive troponin I assay in early diagnosis of acute myocardial infarction. N Engl J Med. 2009;361(9):868-877.
17. Reichlin T, Hochholzer W, Bassetti S, et al. Early diagnosis of myocardial infarction with sensitive cardiac troponin assays. N Engl J Med. 2009;361(9):858-867.
18. Ghali JK, Kadakia S, Cooper RS, Liao YL. Impact of left ventricular hypertrophy on ventricular arrhythmias in the absence of coronary artery disease. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1991;17(6):1277-1282.
19. Bang CN, Soliman EZ, Simpson LM, et al. Electrocardiographic left ventricular hypertrophy predicts cardiovascular morbidity and mortality in hypertensive patients: the ALLHAT study. Am J Hypertens. 2017;30(9):914-922.
20. Hsieh BP, Pham MX, Froelicher VF. Prognostic value of electrocardiographic criteria for left ventricular hypertrophy. Am Heart J. 2005;150(1):161-167.
21. Kinsella K, Baraff LJ. Initiation of therapy for asymptomatic hypertension in the emergency department. Ann Emerg Med. 2009;54(6):791-792.
22. O’Mailia JJ, Sander GE, Giles TD. Nifedipine-associated myocardial ischemia or infarction in the treatment of hypertensive urgencies. Ann Intern Med. 1987;107(2):185-186.
23. Grossman E, Messerli FH, Grodzicki T, Kowey P. Should a moratorium be placed on sublingual nifedipine capsules given for hypertensive emergencies and pseudoemergencies? JAMA. 1996;276(16):1328-1331.
1. CDC. High blood pressure fact sheet. www.cdc.gov/dhdsp/data_statistics/fact_sheets/fs_bloodpressure.htm. Accessed September 26, 2017.
2. Decker WW, Godwin SA, Hess EP, et al; American College of Emergency Physicians Clinical Policies Subcommittee (Writing Committee) on Asymptomatic Hypertension in the ED. Clinical policy: critical issues in the evaluation and management of adult patients with asymptomatic hypertension in the emergency department. Ann Emerg Med. 2006;47(3):237-249.
3. CDC. High blood pressure facts. www.cdc.gov/bloodpressure/facts.htm. Accessed October 19, 2017.
4. World Health Organization. Global Health Risks: Mortality and Burden of Disease Attributable to Selected Major Risks. Geneva, Switzerland: WHO; 2009. www.who.int/healthinfo/global_burden_disease/GlobalHealthRisks_report_full.pdf. Accessed October 19, 2017.
5. Stewart DL, Feinstein SE, Colgan R. Hypertensive urgencies and emergencies. Prim Care. 2006;33(3):613-623.
6. Wolf SJ, Lo B, Shih RD, et al; American College of Emergency Physicians Clinical Policies Committee. Clinical policy: critical issues in the evaluation and management of adult patients in the emergency department with asymptomatic elevated blood pressure. Ann Emerg Med. 2013;62(1):59-68.
7. McKinnon M, O’Neill JM. Hypertension in the emergency department: treat now, later, or not at all. Emerg Med Pract. 2010;12(6):1-22.
8. Mancia G, Fagard R, Narkiewicz K, et al. 2013 ESH/ESC Guidelines for the management of arterial hypertension: the Task Force for the management of arterial hypertension of the European Society of Hypertension (ESH) and of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC). J Hypertens. 2013;31(7): 1281-1357.
9. Shayne PH, Pitts SR. Severely increased blood pressure in the emergency department. Ann Emerg Med. 2003;41(4): 513-529.
10. Aggarwal M, Khan IA. Hypertensive crisis: hypertensive emergencies and urgencies. Cardiol Clin. 2006;24(1):135-146.
11. Houston MC. The comparative effects of clonidine hydrochloride and nifedipine in the treatment of hypertensive crises. Am Heart J. 1998;115(1 pt 1):152-159.
12. Kitiyakara C, Guaman NJ. Malignant hypertension and hypertensive emergencies. J Am Soc Nephrol. 1998;9(1):133-142.
13. Elliott WJ. Hypertensive emergencies. Crit Care Clin. 2001;17(2):435-451.
14. Papadopoulos DP, Mourouzis I, Thomopoulos C, et al. Hypertension crisis. Blood Press. 2010;19(6):328-336.
15. James PA, Oparil S, Carter BL, et al. 2014 evidence-based guideline for the management of high blood pressure in adults: report from the panel members appointed to the Eighth Joint National Committee (JNC 8). JAMA. 2014;311(5):507-520.
16. Keller T, Zeller T, Peetz D, et al. Sensitive troponin I assay in early diagnosis of acute myocardial infarction. N Engl J Med. 2009;361(9):868-877.
17. Reichlin T, Hochholzer W, Bassetti S, et al. Early diagnosis of myocardial infarction with sensitive cardiac troponin assays. N Engl J Med. 2009;361(9):858-867.
18. Ghali JK, Kadakia S, Cooper RS, Liao YL. Impact of left ventricular hypertrophy on ventricular arrhythmias in the absence of coronary artery disease. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1991;17(6):1277-1282.
19. Bang CN, Soliman EZ, Simpson LM, et al. Electrocardiographic left ventricular hypertrophy predicts cardiovascular morbidity and mortality in hypertensive patients: the ALLHAT study. Am J Hypertens. 2017;30(9):914-922.
20. Hsieh BP, Pham MX, Froelicher VF. Prognostic value of electrocardiographic criteria for left ventricular hypertrophy. Am Heart J. 2005;150(1):161-167.
21. Kinsella K, Baraff LJ. Initiation of therapy for asymptomatic hypertension in the emergency department. Ann Emerg Med. 2009;54(6):791-792.
22. O’Mailia JJ, Sander GE, Giles TD. Nifedipine-associated myocardial ischemia or infarction in the treatment of hypertensive urgencies. Ann Intern Med. 1987;107(2):185-186.
23. Grossman E, Messerli FH, Grodzicki T, Kowey P. Should a moratorium be placed on sublingual nifedipine capsules given for hypertensive emergencies and pseudoemergencies? JAMA. 1996;276(16):1328-1331.
