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Mr. B, age 78, has a long history of well-controlled bipolar disorder and was diagnosed with Alzheimer’s dementia 6 months ago. He is living at home and has been taking donepezil, 10 mg/d, and lamotrigine, 100 mg bid.
This morning Mr. B’s wife calls and reports that he is experiencing sudden difficulty walking, dizziness, and “feeling drunk.” When you ask about Mr. B’s medications, his wife says that her husband’s internist had prescribed itraconazole, 200 mg/d, for onychomycosis, and Mr. B has taken 1 dose. You promptly discontinue the itraconazole, and Mr. B’s symptoms resolve.
Drug-drug interactions (DDIs) in Alzheimer’s disease (AD) patients such as Mr. B can be serious and even life-threatening. On average, persons age ≥65 use 4.5 prescription agents and 2 over-the-counter preparations per day,1 and the number of concurrently used medications is a significant predictor of adverse drug reactions.2
Cognitive enhancers, including acetylcholinesterase inhibitors (AChEIs) and memantine, are the most widely prescribed agents for AD patients. The FDA has approved galantamine and rivastigmine for mild to moderate dementia, memantine for moderate to severe dementia, and donepezil for mild to severe dementia (Table 1).3-5
To help you minimize adverse DDIs in AD patients, this article describes:
- pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic effects of cognitive enhancers used in AD management
- DDIs with medications commonly prescribed to AD patients
- how to avoid adverse events related to antipsychotics, antidepressants, and benzodiazepines.
Table 1
Pharmacokinetic features of cognitive enhancers
Agent | Protein binding | CYP-450 activity | Other features |
---|---|---|---|
AChEIs | |||
Donepezil | 96% | CYP 2D6, 3A4 substrate | Once-daily dosing |
Rivastigmine | 40% | None | Metabolized by cholinesterases |
Galantamine | 18% | CYP 2D6, 3A4 substrate | Nicotinic cholinergic receptor modulation |
NMDA receptor antagonist | |||
Memantine | 45% | None | No hepatic metabolism |
CYP-450: cytochrome P-450; AChEIs: acetylcholinesterase inhibitors; NMDA: N-methyl-D-aspartate | |||
Source: References 3-5 |
Pharmacologic changes with aging
Pharmacokinetics is the study of the time course of drugs and their metabolites through the body. Pharmacokinetic interactions involve alterations in the plasma concentration of a drug by a second agent.3
Absorption of medications is decreased in the elderly because of reduced intestinal blood flow and motility. Absorption further decreases if patients concomitantly take antacids, high-fiber supplements, or anticholinergic medications.
In plasma, drugs circulate freely or bound to proteins—mainly albumin and α1-acid glycoprotein. Aging can cause decreased plasma albumin and increased α1-acid glycoprotein.6 Additionally, malnutrition, diabetes mellitus, and hepatic and renal disease—all more common with advancing age—may cause hypoalbuminemia, which increases the free fraction of drugs bound to albumin.6Table 1 includes information about cognitive enhancers’ protein binding.
When 2 or more highly protein-bound drugs are coadministered, mutual displacement occurs and the free fraction of each drug increases. A recent case report described valproate toxicity with dizziness, ataxia, and falling in a 76-year-old man after aspirin was added to his regimen.7 The mechanism appeared to be mutual displacement from albumin combined with metabolism of valproate inhibited by aspirin.7
Metabolism. Liver size and hepatic blood flow decrease with aging.6 Cytochrome P-450 3A4 pathway activity slows, but the 2D6 pathway is not affected.4 Oxidative metabolism through CYP pathways is slower, but conjugation reactions are not.6Table 23,5,7,8 lists major substrates and inhibitors of CYP enzymes.
Azole antifungals are potent inhibitors of CYP 3A4,4 of which both donepezil and lamotrigine are substrates (Table 2). In Mr. B’s case, lamotrigine and donepezil levels increased because of this pharmacokinetic interaction. Because donepezil also is metabolized by the CYP 2D6 pathway, the increase in concentration is unlikely to modify the drug effect. Mr. B experienced symptoms consistent with lamotrigine toxicity.
Pharmacokinetics of AChEIs. AChEIs have relatively few pharmacokinetic interactions, although donepezil and galantamine are metabolized through the liver’s CYP 2D6 and 3A4 pathways.
Because rivastigmine does not undergo hepatic metabolism, it is least likely of the cognitive enhancers to have pharmacokinetic interactions with other medications. Rivastigmine did not lead to increased adverse events when administered concomitantly with 22 different classes of medications—including antidiabetics, cardiovascular drugs, gastrointestinal agents, and NSAIDs.9
Table 2
DDIs in AD patients: CYP-450 substrates and inhibitors*
CYP 2D6 | CYP 3A4 | |
---|---|---|
Substrates (substances metabolized by enzyme) | Second-generation antipsychotics Citalopram Donepezil Duloxetine Galantamine Haloperidol Tricyclic antidepressants Trazodone Venlafaxine | Second-generation antipsychotics Benzodiazepines Buspirone Carbamazepine Donepezil Galantamine Haloperidol Lamotrigine Mirtazapine Nefazodone Sertraline Tricyclic antidepressants Trazodone Zolpidem |
Inhibitors | Bupropion Cimetidine Duloxetine Fluoxetine Paroxetine Sertraline | Erythromycin Fluconazole Fluvoxamine Grapefruit juice Itraconazole Nefazodone |
*All cytochrome P (CYP) 450 enzymes are induced by barbiturates, phenytoin, carbamazepine, and rifampicin. Smoking also induces CYP 1A2. | ||
DDIs: drug-drug interactions; AD: Alzheimer’s disease | ||
Source: References 3,5,7,8 |
Memantine, an amantadine derivative and N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor antagonist, is a weak dopaminergic agonist with atropinic effects.11 Because memantine is not metabolized by the CYP-450 pathway, it lacks pharmacokinetic DDIs.12 However, combining memantine with other NMDA antagonists—such as amantadine or dextromethorphan—could cause hallucinations, dizziness, headache, fatigue, and confusion.11 Concurrent use with drugs that lower seizure threshold, such as tricyclic antidepressants, may increase the risk of seizures.
Table 3
Potential drug-drug interactions in AD patients taking cognitive enhancers
Interaction | Mechanism | Potential sequela(e) |
---|---|---|
AChEIs + anticholinergics | ↓ Acetylcholine in CNS | Cognitive worsening, delirium |
AChEIs + beta blockers | Vagal stimulation and sympathetic blockade | Bradycardia, syncope |
AChEIs + cholinergics | ↑ Acetylcholine in PNS | Cholinergic crisis: hypersalivation, abdominal pain, diarrhea |
AChEIs + antipsychotics (rare) | ↑ Acetylcholine/↓ dopamine in striatum | Parkinsonian syndrome, rigidity |
Ginkgo biloba + warfarin | Antiplatelet aggregation and anticoagulation | Gastrointestinal bleeding, hematuria, subcutaneous ecchymosis |
AChEIs: acetylcholinesterase inhibitors; PNS: peripheral nervous system | ||
Source: References 3,5,10 |
DDIs with cognitive enhancers
Anticholinergics. Because anticholinergic drugs can worsen cognitive impairment and cause delirium they are contraindicated in older patients—especially those with AD. Antihistamines, histamine H2 blockers, low-potency first-generation antipsychotics (FGAs), and tricyclic antidepressants are common medications with anticholinergic effects (Table 4).5,13,14
- 33% of those taking donepezil also were receiving anticholinergics, compared with 23% of controls
- 26% of all patients in the study used multiple anticholinergic medications.
Antiparkinsonian agents. Interaction of antiparkinsonian medications with AChEIs could limit the efficacy of either drug when treating comorbid AD and Parkinson’s disease (PD),5 although in practice, clinical deterioration of parkinsonism has not been reported.15 In one study, 25 PD patients stabilized on levodopa/carbidopa were given donepezil, 5 mg/d, or placebo for two 2-week courses separated by a washout of at least 2 weeks. At steady state, pharmacokinetic parameters were unchanged and no clinically significant DDIs were observed.16
Cardiovascular agents. Concurrent use of AChEIs and beta blockers, calcium channel inhibitors, or digoxin could worsen bradycardia and cause syncope. The risk is higher in patients:
- with sick sinus syndrome or other bradyarrhythmias
- taking antipsychotics that could induce torsades de pointes,11 such as ziprasidone or haloperidol.
Other agents. AChEIs inhibit the metabolism of succinylcholine and therefore augment and prolong this drug’s neuromuscular blockade. Discontinue AChEIs before administering succinylcholine for anesthesia, such as for electroconvulsive treatment.
AChEIs may lead to toxicity when added to cholinergic agents such as bethanechol.11 Similarly, AChEIs may precipitate a cholinergic crisis—with increasing weakness, hypersalivation, abdominal pains, and diarrhea—when used in conjunction with peripheral acetylcholinesterase inhibitors such as the myasthenia gravis agents pyridostigmine and neostigmine. The mechanism is increased acetylcholine available at the neuromuscular junction.
Table 4
Medications with moderate to strong anticholinergic activity
Class | Examples | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Antiarrhythmics | Disopyramide | |||
Antiemetics | Meclizine | |||
Antiparkinsonians | Benztropine, biperiden, trihexyphenidyl | |||
Antipsychotics | Chlorpromazine, clozapine, olanzapine, pimozide, thioridazine | |||
Antihistamines | Chlorpheniramine, cyproheptadine, diphenhydramine, hydroxyzine, Promethazine | |||
Gastrointestinal/urinary antispasmodics | Atropine, belladonna alkaloids, dicyclomine, hyoscyamine, oxybutynin, scopolamine, tolterodine | |||
H2 histamine | Cimetidine, ranitidine | |||
Muscle relaxants | Cyclobenzaprine | |||
Tricyclic antidepressants | Amitriptyline, amoxapine, clomipramine, doxepin, imipramine, protriptyline | |||
Source: References 5,13,14 |
DDIs with other psychotropics
Antipsychotics. Nearly one-half of AD patients experience delusions, often in the middle stage of the disease, and many are prescribed second-generation antipsychotics (SGAs) to control delusions, hallucinations, sundowning, agitation, or aggression. Concomitant use of AChEIs and antipsychotics may increase the risk of extrapyramidal symptoms by disrupting the acetylcholine/dopamine balance in the striatum.5
In AD patients taking donepezil and risperidone, case reports describe parkinsonian syndrome and rigidity with immobility, which resolved after the antipsychotic was discontinued.5,11 When rivastigmine and risperidone were coadministered, however, no clinically relevant adverse interactions were noted in a 20-week, open-label trial of 65 patients with AD, 10 with vascular dementia, and 10 with both.17
The FDA has warned of increased risk of death when SGAs are used to treat behavioral disturbances in dementia patients. In a recent meta-analysis of 15 placebo-controlled trials, cognitive tests scores worsened when AD patients took aripiprazole, olanzapine, quetiapine, or risperidone. A significant risk for cerebrovascular events was seen, especially with risperidone, although no clear causal relationship was established.18 Falls, injury, and syncope were not increased, and patients with less severe dementia, outpatients, and those selected for psychosis were less affected. Thus, provide careful follow-up and avoid long-term unwarranted antipsychotic use in AD patients.
Highly anticholinergic FGAs such as chlorpromazine are not recommended for AD patients (Table 4).
Antidepressants. Up to 30% of AD patients experience major depression.19 SSRIs are the antidepressants most often used to treat depression and anxiety in AD patients.
Citalopram, escitalopram, or venlafaxine are good choices for patients with AD because of minimal CYP inhibitory activity.4 Fluvoxamine, fluoxetine, and paroxetine inhibit CYP 2C9, through which warfarin and some other drugs with a narrow therapeutic index are metabolized.6
Herbal supplements. Ginkgo biloba and huperzine A (Chinese club moss) are the herbal supplements used most commonly by dementia patients. Ginkgo inhibits platelet aggregation and can cause bleeding complications, with or without concomitant antiplatelet or anticoagulant therapy such as aspirin, warfarin, and NSAIDs. Enzyme induction of CYP 2C19 by ginkgo, leading to subtherapeutic levels of anticonvulsants, has been implicated in a report of fatal seizures. Huperzine A is a natural cholinesterase inhibitor and should not be combined with AChEIs because of the risk of additive adverse effects.10
Related resources
- Jacobson SA, Pies RW, Greenblatt DJ. Handbook of geriatric psychopharmacology. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing; 2002.
- Sandson, NB. Drug-drug interaction primer. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing; 2007.
- Amantadine • Symmetrel
- Amitriptyline • Elavil
- Amoxapine • Asendin
- Aripiprazole • Abilify
- Atropine • Sal-Tropine
- Benztropine • Cogentin
- Bethanechol • Urecholine
- Biperiden • Akineton
- Bupropion • Wellbutrin
- Buspirone • BuSpar
- Carbamazepine • Tegretol
- Celecoxib • Celebrex
- Chlorpheniramine • Chlor-Trimeton
- Chlorpromazine • Thorazine
- Cimetidine • Tagamet
- Citalopram • Celexa
- Clomipramine • Anafranil
- Clozapine • Clozaril
- Cyclobenzaprine • Flexeril
- Cyproheptadine • Periactin
- Dextromethorphan • Benylin, Delsym, others
- Dicyclomine • Bentyl
- Digoxin • Lanoxin
- Diphenhydramine • Benadryl
- Disopyramide • Norpace
- Donepezil • Aricept
- Doxepin • Adapin, Sinequan
- Duloxetine • Cymbalta
- Escitalopram • Lexapro
- Erythromycin • E-Mycin
- Fluconazole • Diflucan
- Fluvoxamine • Luvox
- Fluoxetine • Prozac
- Galantamine • Reminyl, Razadyne
- Haloperidol • Haldol
- Hydroxyzine • Vistaril
- Hyoscyamine • Anaspaz, Levbid, Levsin
- Imipramine • Tofranil
- Itraconazole • Sporanox
- Lamotrigine • Lamictal
- Levodopa/carbidopa • Sinemet
- Lithium • Eskalith, Lithobid
- Lorazepam • Ativan
- Meclizine • Antivert
- Memantine • Namenda
- Mirtazapine • Remeron
- Nefazodone • Serzone
- Neostigmine • Prostigmin
- Olanzapine • Zyprexa
- Oxazepam • Serax
- Oxybutynin • Ditropan
- Paroxetine • Paxil
- Pimozide • Orap
- Promethazine • Phenergan
- Protriptyline • Vivactil
- Pyridostigmine • Mestinon
- Quetiapine • Seroquel
- Ranitidine • Zantac
- Risperidone • Risperdal
- Rivastigmine • Exelon
- Scopolamine • Scopace
- Sertraline • Zoloft
- Succinylcholine • Anectine
- Temazepam • Restoril
- Thioridazine • Mellaril
- Tolterodine • Detrol
- Trazodone • Desyrel
- Trihexyphenidyl • Artane
- Valproate • Depakote
- Venlafaxine • Effexor
- Warfarin • Coumadin
- Ziprasidone • Geodon
- Zolpidem • Ambien
The author reports no financial relationship with any company whose products are mentioned in this article or with manufacturers of competing products.
1. Prescription drugs and the elderly: many still receive potentially harmful drugs despite recent improvements. Washington, DC: United States General Accounting Office; 1996. Publication HEHS 95-152.
2. Atkin PA, Veitch PC, Veitch EM, Ogle SJ. The epidemiology of serious adverse drug reactions among the elderly. Drugs Aging 1999;14:141-52.
3. Marangell LB, Martinez JM, Silver JM, Yudofsky SC, eds. Concise guide to psychopharmacology. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing; 2002:4-7, 129,173, 171-80.
4. Roose SP, Pollock BG, Devanand DD. Treatment during late life. In: Schatzberg AF, Nemeroff CB, eds. Textbook of psychopharmacology. 3rd ed. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing; 2004:1083-5.
5. Bentue-Ferrer D, Tribut O, Polard E, Allain H. Clinically significant drug interactions with cholinesterase inhibitors: a guide for neurologists. CNS Drugs 2003;17:947-63.
6. Mulsant BH, Pollock BG. Psychopharmacology. In: Blazer DG, Steffens DC, Busse EW, eds. Textbook of geriatric psychiatry. 3rd ed. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing; 2004:387-411.
7. Sandson NB, Marcucci C, Bourke DL, Smith-Lamacchia R. An interaction between aspirin and valproate: the relevance of plasma protein displacement drug-drug interaction. Am J Psychiatry 2006;163:1891-6.
8. Spina E, Scordo MG, D’Arrigo C. Metabolic drug interactions with new psychotropic agents. Fundam Clin Pharmacol 2003;17:517-38.
9. Grossberg GT, Stahelin HB, Messina JC, et al. Lack of adverse pharmacodynamic drug interactions with rivastigmine and twenty-two classes of medications. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry 2000;15:242-7.
10. Beier MT. Harmless herbs? Think again: merits of a complete medication history. J Am Med Dir Assoc 2006;7:446-7.
11. [No authors listed]. Alzheimer’s disease: beware of interactions with cholinesterase inhibitors. Prescrire Int 2006;15:103-6.
12. Grossberg GT, Edwards KR, Zhao Q. Rationale for combining therapy with galantamine and memantine in Alzheimer’s disease. J Clin Pharmacol 2006;46(suppl 1):S17-S26.
13. Roe CM, Anderson MJ, Spivack B. Use of anticholinergic medications by older adults with dementia. J Am Geriatr Soc 2002;50:836-42.
14. Carnahan RM, Lund BC, Perry PJ, Chrischilles EA. The concurrent use of anticholinergics and cholinesterase inhibitors: rare event or common practice? J Am Geriatr Soc 2004;52:2082-7.
15. Schrag A. Psychiatric aspects of Parkinson’s disease. J Neurol 2004;251:795-804.
16. Okereke CS, Kirby L, Kumar D, et al. Concurrent administration of donepezil HCl and levodopa/carbidopa in patients with Parkinson’s disease: assessment of pharmacokinetic changes and safety following multiple oral doses. Br J Clin Pharmacol 2004;58(suppl 1):41-9.
17. Weiser M, Rotmensch HH, Korczyn AD, et al. A pilot, randomized, open-label trial assessing safety and pharmacokinetic parameters of co-administration of rivastigmine with risperidone in dementia patients with behavioral disturbances. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry 2002;17:343-6.
18. Schneider LS, Dagerman K, Insel PS. Efficacy and adverse events of atypical antipsychotics for dementia: meta-analysis of randomized, placebo-controlled trials. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry 2006;14(3):191-210.
19. Koenig HG, Blazer DG. Mood disorders. In: Blazer DG, Steffens DC, Busse EW, eds. Textbook of geriatric psychiatry 3rd ed. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing; 2004:254.
20. Jacobson SA, Pies RW, Greenblatt DJ. Anxiolytic and sedative-hypnotic medications. In: Handbook of geriatric psychopharmacology. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing; 2002:249-312.
Mr. B, age 78, has a long history of well-controlled bipolar disorder and was diagnosed with Alzheimer’s dementia 6 months ago. He is living at home and has been taking donepezil, 10 mg/d, and lamotrigine, 100 mg bid.
This morning Mr. B’s wife calls and reports that he is experiencing sudden difficulty walking, dizziness, and “feeling drunk.” When you ask about Mr. B’s medications, his wife says that her husband’s internist had prescribed itraconazole, 200 mg/d, for onychomycosis, and Mr. B has taken 1 dose. You promptly discontinue the itraconazole, and Mr. B’s symptoms resolve.
Drug-drug interactions (DDIs) in Alzheimer’s disease (AD) patients such as Mr. B can be serious and even life-threatening. On average, persons age ≥65 use 4.5 prescription agents and 2 over-the-counter preparations per day,1 and the number of concurrently used medications is a significant predictor of adverse drug reactions.2
Cognitive enhancers, including acetylcholinesterase inhibitors (AChEIs) and memantine, are the most widely prescribed agents for AD patients. The FDA has approved galantamine and rivastigmine for mild to moderate dementia, memantine for moderate to severe dementia, and donepezil for mild to severe dementia (Table 1).3-5
To help you minimize adverse DDIs in AD patients, this article describes:
- pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic effects of cognitive enhancers used in AD management
- DDIs with medications commonly prescribed to AD patients
- how to avoid adverse events related to antipsychotics, antidepressants, and benzodiazepines.
Table 1
Pharmacokinetic features of cognitive enhancers
Agent | Protein binding | CYP-450 activity | Other features |
---|---|---|---|
AChEIs | |||
Donepezil | 96% | CYP 2D6, 3A4 substrate | Once-daily dosing |
Rivastigmine | 40% | None | Metabolized by cholinesterases |
Galantamine | 18% | CYP 2D6, 3A4 substrate | Nicotinic cholinergic receptor modulation |
NMDA receptor antagonist | |||
Memantine | 45% | None | No hepatic metabolism |
CYP-450: cytochrome P-450; AChEIs: acetylcholinesterase inhibitors; NMDA: N-methyl-D-aspartate | |||
Source: References 3-5 |
Pharmacologic changes with aging
Pharmacokinetics is the study of the time course of drugs and their metabolites through the body. Pharmacokinetic interactions involve alterations in the plasma concentration of a drug by a second agent.3
Absorption of medications is decreased in the elderly because of reduced intestinal blood flow and motility. Absorption further decreases if patients concomitantly take antacids, high-fiber supplements, or anticholinergic medications.
In plasma, drugs circulate freely or bound to proteins—mainly albumin and α1-acid glycoprotein. Aging can cause decreased plasma albumin and increased α1-acid glycoprotein.6 Additionally, malnutrition, diabetes mellitus, and hepatic and renal disease—all more common with advancing age—may cause hypoalbuminemia, which increases the free fraction of drugs bound to albumin.6Table 1 includes information about cognitive enhancers’ protein binding.
When 2 or more highly protein-bound drugs are coadministered, mutual displacement occurs and the free fraction of each drug increases. A recent case report described valproate toxicity with dizziness, ataxia, and falling in a 76-year-old man after aspirin was added to his regimen.7 The mechanism appeared to be mutual displacement from albumin combined with metabolism of valproate inhibited by aspirin.7
Metabolism. Liver size and hepatic blood flow decrease with aging.6 Cytochrome P-450 3A4 pathway activity slows, but the 2D6 pathway is not affected.4 Oxidative metabolism through CYP pathways is slower, but conjugation reactions are not.6Table 23,5,7,8 lists major substrates and inhibitors of CYP enzymes.
Azole antifungals are potent inhibitors of CYP 3A4,4 of which both donepezil and lamotrigine are substrates (Table 2). In Mr. B’s case, lamotrigine and donepezil levels increased because of this pharmacokinetic interaction. Because donepezil also is metabolized by the CYP 2D6 pathway, the increase in concentration is unlikely to modify the drug effect. Mr. B experienced symptoms consistent with lamotrigine toxicity.
Pharmacokinetics of AChEIs. AChEIs have relatively few pharmacokinetic interactions, although donepezil and galantamine are metabolized through the liver’s CYP 2D6 and 3A4 pathways.
Because rivastigmine does not undergo hepatic metabolism, it is least likely of the cognitive enhancers to have pharmacokinetic interactions with other medications. Rivastigmine did not lead to increased adverse events when administered concomitantly with 22 different classes of medications—including antidiabetics, cardiovascular drugs, gastrointestinal agents, and NSAIDs.9
Table 2
DDIs in AD patients: CYP-450 substrates and inhibitors*
CYP 2D6 | CYP 3A4 | |
---|---|---|
Substrates (substances metabolized by enzyme) | Second-generation antipsychotics Citalopram Donepezil Duloxetine Galantamine Haloperidol Tricyclic antidepressants Trazodone Venlafaxine | Second-generation antipsychotics Benzodiazepines Buspirone Carbamazepine Donepezil Galantamine Haloperidol Lamotrigine Mirtazapine Nefazodone Sertraline Tricyclic antidepressants Trazodone Zolpidem |
Inhibitors | Bupropion Cimetidine Duloxetine Fluoxetine Paroxetine Sertraline | Erythromycin Fluconazole Fluvoxamine Grapefruit juice Itraconazole Nefazodone |
*All cytochrome P (CYP) 450 enzymes are induced by barbiturates, phenytoin, carbamazepine, and rifampicin. Smoking also induces CYP 1A2. | ||
DDIs: drug-drug interactions; AD: Alzheimer’s disease | ||
Source: References 3,5,7,8 |
Memantine, an amantadine derivative and N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor antagonist, is a weak dopaminergic agonist with atropinic effects.11 Because memantine is not metabolized by the CYP-450 pathway, it lacks pharmacokinetic DDIs.12 However, combining memantine with other NMDA antagonists—such as amantadine or dextromethorphan—could cause hallucinations, dizziness, headache, fatigue, and confusion.11 Concurrent use with drugs that lower seizure threshold, such as tricyclic antidepressants, may increase the risk of seizures.
Table 3
Potential drug-drug interactions in AD patients taking cognitive enhancers
Interaction | Mechanism | Potential sequela(e) |
---|---|---|
AChEIs + anticholinergics | ↓ Acetylcholine in CNS | Cognitive worsening, delirium |
AChEIs + beta blockers | Vagal stimulation and sympathetic blockade | Bradycardia, syncope |
AChEIs + cholinergics | ↑ Acetylcholine in PNS | Cholinergic crisis: hypersalivation, abdominal pain, diarrhea |
AChEIs + antipsychotics (rare) | ↑ Acetylcholine/↓ dopamine in striatum | Parkinsonian syndrome, rigidity |
Ginkgo biloba + warfarin | Antiplatelet aggregation and anticoagulation | Gastrointestinal bleeding, hematuria, subcutaneous ecchymosis |
AChEIs: acetylcholinesterase inhibitors; PNS: peripheral nervous system | ||
Source: References 3,5,10 |
DDIs with cognitive enhancers
Anticholinergics. Because anticholinergic drugs can worsen cognitive impairment and cause delirium they are contraindicated in older patients—especially those with AD. Antihistamines, histamine H2 blockers, low-potency first-generation antipsychotics (FGAs), and tricyclic antidepressants are common medications with anticholinergic effects (Table 4).5,13,14
- 33% of those taking donepezil also were receiving anticholinergics, compared with 23% of controls
- 26% of all patients in the study used multiple anticholinergic medications.
Antiparkinsonian agents. Interaction of antiparkinsonian medications with AChEIs could limit the efficacy of either drug when treating comorbid AD and Parkinson’s disease (PD),5 although in practice, clinical deterioration of parkinsonism has not been reported.15 In one study, 25 PD patients stabilized on levodopa/carbidopa were given donepezil, 5 mg/d, or placebo for two 2-week courses separated by a washout of at least 2 weeks. At steady state, pharmacokinetic parameters were unchanged and no clinically significant DDIs were observed.16
Cardiovascular agents. Concurrent use of AChEIs and beta blockers, calcium channel inhibitors, or digoxin could worsen bradycardia and cause syncope. The risk is higher in patients:
- with sick sinus syndrome or other bradyarrhythmias
- taking antipsychotics that could induce torsades de pointes,11 such as ziprasidone or haloperidol.
Other agents. AChEIs inhibit the metabolism of succinylcholine and therefore augment and prolong this drug’s neuromuscular blockade. Discontinue AChEIs before administering succinylcholine for anesthesia, such as for electroconvulsive treatment.
AChEIs may lead to toxicity when added to cholinergic agents such as bethanechol.11 Similarly, AChEIs may precipitate a cholinergic crisis—with increasing weakness, hypersalivation, abdominal pains, and diarrhea—when used in conjunction with peripheral acetylcholinesterase inhibitors such as the myasthenia gravis agents pyridostigmine and neostigmine. The mechanism is increased acetylcholine available at the neuromuscular junction.
Table 4
Medications with moderate to strong anticholinergic activity
Class | Examples | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Antiarrhythmics | Disopyramide | |||
Antiemetics | Meclizine | |||
Antiparkinsonians | Benztropine, biperiden, trihexyphenidyl | |||
Antipsychotics | Chlorpromazine, clozapine, olanzapine, pimozide, thioridazine | |||
Antihistamines | Chlorpheniramine, cyproheptadine, diphenhydramine, hydroxyzine, Promethazine | |||
Gastrointestinal/urinary antispasmodics | Atropine, belladonna alkaloids, dicyclomine, hyoscyamine, oxybutynin, scopolamine, tolterodine | |||
H2 histamine | Cimetidine, ranitidine | |||
Muscle relaxants | Cyclobenzaprine | |||
Tricyclic antidepressants | Amitriptyline, amoxapine, clomipramine, doxepin, imipramine, protriptyline | |||
Source: References 5,13,14 |
DDIs with other psychotropics
Antipsychotics. Nearly one-half of AD patients experience delusions, often in the middle stage of the disease, and many are prescribed second-generation antipsychotics (SGAs) to control delusions, hallucinations, sundowning, agitation, or aggression. Concomitant use of AChEIs and antipsychotics may increase the risk of extrapyramidal symptoms by disrupting the acetylcholine/dopamine balance in the striatum.5
In AD patients taking donepezil and risperidone, case reports describe parkinsonian syndrome and rigidity with immobility, which resolved after the antipsychotic was discontinued.5,11 When rivastigmine and risperidone were coadministered, however, no clinically relevant adverse interactions were noted in a 20-week, open-label trial of 65 patients with AD, 10 with vascular dementia, and 10 with both.17
The FDA has warned of increased risk of death when SGAs are used to treat behavioral disturbances in dementia patients. In a recent meta-analysis of 15 placebo-controlled trials, cognitive tests scores worsened when AD patients took aripiprazole, olanzapine, quetiapine, or risperidone. A significant risk for cerebrovascular events was seen, especially with risperidone, although no clear causal relationship was established.18 Falls, injury, and syncope were not increased, and patients with less severe dementia, outpatients, and those selected for psychosis were less affected. Thus, provide careful follow-up and avoid long-term unwarranted antipsychotic use in AD patients.
Highly anticholinergic FGAs such as chlorpromazine are not recommended for AD patients (Table 4).
Antidepressants. Up to 30% of AD patients experience major depression.19 SSRIs are the antidepressants most often used to treat depression and anxiety in AD patients.
Citalopram, escitalopram, or venlafaxine are good choices for patients with AD because of minimal CYP inhibitory activity.4 Fluvoxamine, fluoxetine, and paroxetine inhibit CYP 2C9, through which warfarin and some other drugs with a narrow therapeutic index are metabolized.6
Herbal supplements. Ginkgo biloba and huperzine A (Chinese club moss) are the herbal supplements used most commonly by dementia patients. Ginkgo inhibits platelet aggregation and can cause bleeding complications, with or without concomitant antiplatelet or anticoagulant therapy such as aspirin, warfarin, and NSAIDs. Enzyme induction of CYP 2C19 by ginkgo, leading to subtherapeutic levels of anticonvulsants, has been implicated in a report of fatal seizures. Huperzine A is a natural cholinesterase inhibitor and should not be combined with AChEIs because of the risk of additive adverse effects.10
Related resources
- Jacobson SA, Pies RW, Greenblatt DJ. Handbook of geriatric psychopharmacology. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing; 2002.
- Sandson, NB. Drug-drug interaction primer. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing; 2007.
- Amantadine • Symmetrel
- Amitriptyline • Elavil
- Amoxapine • Asendin
- Aripiprazole • Abilify
- Atropine • Sal-Tropine
- Benztropine • Cogentin
- Bethanechol • Urecholine
- Biperiden • Akineton
- Bupropion • Wellbutrin
- Buspirone • BuSpar
- Carbamazepine • Tegretol
- Celecoxib • Celebrex
- Chlorpheniramine • Chlor-Trimeton
- Chlorpromazine • Thorazine
- Cimetidine • Tagamet
- Citalopram • Celexa
- Clomipramine • Anafranil
- Clozapine • Clozaril
- Cyclobenzaprine • Flexeril
- Cyproheptadine • Periactin
- Dextromethorphan • Benylin, Delsym, others
- Dicyclomine • Bentyl
- Digoxin • Lanoxin
- Diphenhydramine • Benadryl
- Disopyramide • Norpace
- Donepezil • Aricept
- Doxepin • Adapin, Sinequan
- Duloxetine • Cymbalta
- Escitalopram • Lexapro
- Erythromycin • E-Mycin
- Fluconazole • Diflucan
- Fluvoxamine • Luvox
- Fluoxetine • Prozac
- Galantamine • Reminyl, Razadyne
- Haloperidol • Haldol
- Hydroxyzine • Vistaril
- Hyoscyamine • Anaspaz, Levbid, Levsin
- Imipramine • Tofranil
- Itraconazole • Sporanox
- Lamotrigine • Lamictal
- Levodopa/carbidopa • Sinemet
- Lithium • Eskalith, Lithobid
- Lorazepam • Ativan
- Meclizine • Antivert
- Memantine • Namenda
- Mirtazapine • Remeron
- Nefazodone • Serzone
- Neostigmine • Prostigmin
- Olanzapine • Zyprexa
- Oxazepam • Serax
- Oxybutynin • Ditropan
- Paroxetine • Paxil
- Pimozide • Orap
- Promethazine • Phenergan
- Protriptyline • Vivactil
- Pyridostigmine • Mestinon
- Quetiapine • Seroquel
- Ranitidine • Zantac
- Risperidone • Risperdal
- Rivastigmine • Exelon
- Scopolamine • Scopace
- Sertraline • Zoloft
- Succinylcholine • Anectine
- Temazepam • Restoril
- Thioridazine • Mellaril
- Tolterodine • Detrol
- Trazodone • Desyrel
- Trihexyphenidyl • Artane
- Valproate • Depakote
- Venlafaxine • Effexor
- Warfarin • Coumadin
- Ziprasidone • Geodon
- Zolpidem • Ambien
The author reports no financial relationship with any company whose products are mentioned in this article or with manufacturers of competing products.
Mr. B, age 78, has a long history of well-controlled bipolar disorder and was diagnosed with Alzheimer’s dementia 6 months ago. He is living at home and has been taking donepezil, 10 mg/d, and lamotrigine, 100 mg bid.
This morning Mr. B’s wife calls and reports that he is experiencing sudden difficulty walking, dizziness, and “feeling drunk.” When you ask about Mr. B’s medications, his wife says that her husband’s internist had prescribed itraconazole, 200 mg/d, for onychomycosis, and Mr. B has taken 1 dose. You promptly discontinue the itraconazole, and Mr. B’s symptoms resolve.
Drug-drug interactions (DDIs) in Alzheimer’s disease (AD) patients such as Mr. B can be serious and even life-threatening. On average, persons age ≥65 use 4.5 prescription agents and 2 over-the-counter preparations per day,1 and the number of concurrently used medications is a significant predictor of adverse drug reactions.2
Cognitive enhancers, including acetylcholinesterase inhibitors (AChEIs) and memantine, are the most widely prescribed agents for AD patients. The FDA has approved galantamine and rivastigmine for mild to moderate dementia, memantine for moderate to severe dementia, and donepezil for mild to severe dementia (Table 1).3-5
To help you minimize adverse DDIs in AD patients, this article describes:
- pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic effects of cognitive enhancers used in AD management
- DDIs with medications commonly prescribed to AD patients
- how to avoid adverse events related to antipsychotics, antidepressants, and benzodiazepines.
Table 1
Pharmacokinetic features of cognitive enhancers
Agent | Protein binding | CYP-450 activity | Other features |
---|---|---|---|
AChEIs | |||
Donepezil | 96% | CYP 2D6, 3A4 substrate | Once-daily dosing |
Rivastigmine | 40% | None | Metabolized by cholinesterases |
Galantamine | 18% | CYP 2D6, 3A4 substrate | Nicotinic cholinergic receptor modulation |
NMDA receptor antagonist | |||
Memantine | 45% | None | No hepatic metabolism |
CYP-450: cytochrome P-450; AChEIs: acetylcholinesterase inhibitors; NMDA: N-methyl-D-aspartate | |||
Source: References 3-5 |
Pharmacologic changes with aging
Pharmacokinetics is the study of the time course of drugs and their metabolites through the body. Pharmacokinetic interactions involve alterations in the plasma concentration of a drug by a second agent.3
Absorption of medications is decreased in the elderly because of reduced intestinal blood flow and motility. Absorption further decreases if patients concomitantly take antacids, high-fiber supplements, or anticholinergic medications.
In plasma, drugs circulate freely or bound to proteins—mainly albumin and α1-acid glycoprotein. Aging can cause decreased plasma albumin and increased α1-acid glycoprotein.6 Additionally, malnutrition, diabetes mellitus, and hepatic and renal disease—all more common with advancing age—may cause hypoalbuminemia, which increases the free fraction of drugs bound to albumin.6Table 1 includes information about cognitive enhancers’ protein binding.
When 2 or more highly protein-bound drugs are coadministered, mutual displacement occurs and the free fraction of each drug increases. A recent case report described valproate toxicity with dizziness, ataxia, and falling in a 76-year-old man after aspirin was added to his regimen.7 The mechanism appeared to be mutual displacement from albumin combined with metabolism of valproate inhibited by aspirin.7
Metabolism. Liver size and hepatic blood flow decrease with aging.6 Cytochrome P-450 3A4 pathway activity slows, but the 2D6 pathway is not affected.4 Oxidative metabolism through CYP pathways is slower, but conjugation reactions are not.6Table 23,5,7,8 lists major substrates and inhibitors of CYP enzymes.
Azole antifungals are potent inhibitors of CYP 3A4,4 of which both donepezil and lamotrigine are substrates (Table 2). In Mr. B’s case, lamotrigine and donepezil levels increased because of this pharmacokinetic interaction. Because donepezil also is metabolized by the CYP 2D6 pathway, the increase in concentration is unlikely to modify the drug effect. Mr. B experienced symptoms consistent with lamotrigine toxicity.
Pharmacokinetics of AChEIs. AChEIs have relatively few pharmacokinetic interactions, although donepezil and galantamine are metabolized through the liver’s CYP 2D6 and 3A4 pathways.
Because rivastigmine does not undergo hepatic metabolism, it is least likely of the cognitive enhancers to have pharmacokinetic interactions with other medications. Rivastigmine did not lead to increased adverse events when administered concomitantly with 22 different classes of medications—including antidiabetics, cardiovascular drugs, gastrointestinal agents, and NSAIDs.9
Table 2
DDIs in AD patients: CYP-450 substrates and inhibitors*
CYP 2D6 | CYP 3A4 | |
---|---|---|
Substrates (substances metabolized by enzyme) | Second-generation antipsychotics Citalopram Donepezil Duloxetine Galantamine Haloperidol Tricyclic antidepressants Trazodone Venlafaxine | Second-generation antipsychotics Benzodiazepines Buspirone Carbamazepine Donepezil Galantamine Haloperidol Lamotrigine Mirtazapine Nefazodone Sertraline Tricyclic antidepressants Trazodone Zolpidem |
Inhibitors | Bupropion Cimetidine Duloxetine Fluoxetine Paroxetine Sertraline | Erythromycin Fluconazole Fluvoxamine Grapefruit juice Itraconazole Nefazodone |
*All cytochrome P (CYP) 450 enzymes are induced by barbiturates, phenytoin, carbamazepine, and rifampicin. Smoking also induces CYP 1A2. | ||
DDIs: drug-drug interactions; AD: Alzheimer’s disease | ||
Source: References 3,5,7,8 |
Memantine, an amantadine derivative and N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor antagonist, is a weak dopaminergic agonist with atropinic effects.11 Because memantine is not metabolized by the CYP-450 pathway, it lacks pharmacokinetic DDIs.12 However, combining memantine with other NMDA antagonists—such as amantadine or dextromethorphan—could cause hallucinations, dizziness, headache, fatigue, and confusion.11 Concurrent use with drugs that lower seizure threshold, such as tricyclic antidepressants, may increase the risk of seizures.
Table 3
Potential drug-drug interactions in AD patients taking cognitive enhancers
Interaction | Mechanism | Potential sequela(e) |
---|---|---|
AChEIs + anticholinergics | ↓ Acetylcholine in CNS | Cognitive worsening, delirium |
AChEIs + beta blockers | Vagal stimulation and sympathetic blockade | Bradycardia, syncope |
AChEIs + cholinergics | ↑ Acetylcholine in PNS | Cholinergic crisis: hypersalivation, abdominal pain, diarrhea |
AChEIs + antipsychotics (rare) | ↑ Acetylcholine/↓ dopamine in striatum | Parkinsonian syndrome, rigidity |
Ginkgo biloba + warfarin | Antiplatelet aggregation and anticoagulation | Gastrointestinal bleeding, hematuria, subcutaneous ecchymosis |
AChEIs: acetylcholinesterase inhibitors; PNS: peripheral nervous system | ||
Source: References 3,5,10 |
DDIs with cognitive enhancers
Anticholinergics. Because anticholinergic drugs can worsen cognitive impairment and cause delirium they are contraindicated in older patients—especially those with AD. Antihistamines, histamine H2 blockers, low-potency first-generation antipsychotics (FGAs), and tricyclic antidepressants are common medications with anticholinergic effects (Table 4).5,13,14
- 33% of those taking donepezil also were receiving anticholinergics, compared with 23% of controls
- 26% of all patients in the study used multiple anticholinergic medications.
Antiparkinsonian agents. Interaction of antiparkinsonian medications with AChEIs could limit the efficacy of either drug when treating comorbid AD and Parkinson’s disease (PD),5 although in practice, clinical deterioration of parkinsonism has not been reported.15 In one study, 25 PD patients stabilized on levodopa/carbidopa were given donepezil, 5 mg/d, or placebo for two 2-week courses separated by a washout of at least 2 weeks. At steady state, pharmacokinetic parameters were unchanged and no clinically significant DDIs were observed.16
Cardiovascular agents. Concurrent use of AChEIs and beta blockers, calcium channel inhibitors, or digoxin could worsen bradycardia and cause syncope. The risk is higher in patients:
- with sick sinus syndrome or other bradyarrhythmias
- taking antipsychotics that could induce torsades de pointes,11 such as ziprasidone or haloperidol.
Other agents. AChEIs inhibit the metabolism of succinylcholine and therefore augment and prolong this drug’s neuromuscular blockade. Discontinue AChEIs before administering succinylcholine for anesthesia, such as for electroconvulsive treatment.
AChEIs may lead to toxicity when added to cholinergic agents such as bethanechol.11 Similarly, AChEIs may precipitate a cholinergic crisis—with increasing weakness, hypersalivation, abdominal pains, and diarrhea—when used in conjunction with peripheral acetylcholinesterase inhibitors such as the myasthenia gravis agents pyridostigmine and neostigmine. The mechanism is increased acetylcholine available at the neuromuscular junction.
Table 4
Medications with moderate to strong anticholinergic activity
Class | Examples | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Antiarrhythmics | Disopyramide | |||
Antiemetics | Meclizine | |||
Antiparkinsonians | Benztropine, biperiden, trihexyphenidyl | |||
Antipsychotics | Chlorpromazine, clozapine, olanzapine, pimozide, thioridazine | |||
Antihistamines | Chlorpheniramine, cyproheptadine, diphenhydramine, hydroxyzine, Promethazine | |||
Gastrointestinal/urinary antispasmodics | Atropine, belladonna alkaloids, dicyclomine, hyoscyamine, oxybutynin, scopolamine, tolterodine | |||
H2 histamine | Cimetidine, ranitidine | |||
Muscle relaxants | Cyclobenzaprine | |||
Tricyclic antidepressants | Amitriptyline, amoxapine, clomipramine, doxepin, imipramine, protriptyline | |||
Source: References 5,13,14 |
DDIs with other psychotropics
Antipsychotics. Nearly one-half of AD patients experience delusions, often in the middle stage of the disease, and many are prescribed second-generation antipsychotics (SGAs) to control delusions, hallucinations, sundowning, agitation, or aggression. Concomitant use of AChEIs and antipsychotics may increase the risk of extrapyramidal symptoms by disrupting the acetylcholine/dopamine balance in the striatum.5
In AD patients taking donepezil and risperidone, case reports describe parkinsonian syndrome and rigidity with immobility, which resolved after the antipsychotic was discontinued.5,11 When rivastigmine and risperidone were coadministered, however, no clinically relevant adverse interactions were noted in a 20-week, open-label trial of 65 patients with AD, 10 with vascular dementia, and 10 with both.17
The FDA has warned of increased risk of death when SGAs are used to treat behavioral disturbances in dementia patients. In a recent meta-analysis of 15 placebo-controlled trials, cognitive tests scores worsened when AD patients took aripiprazole, olanzapine, quetiapine, or risperidone. A significant risk for cerebrovascular events was seen, especially with risperidone, although no clear causal relationship was established.18 Falls, injury, and syncope were not increased, and patients with less severe dementia, outpatients, and those selected for psychosis were less affected. Thus, provide careful follow-up and avoid long-term unwarranted antipsychotic use in AD patients.
Highly anticholinergic FGAs such as chlorpromazine are not recommended for AD patients (Table 4).
Antidepressants. Up to 30% of AD patients experience major depression.19 SSRIs are the antidepressants most often used to treat depression and anxiety in AD patients.
Citalopram, escitalopram, or venlafaxine are good choices for patients with AD because of minimal CYP inhibitory activity.4 Fluvoxamine, fluoxetine, and paroxetine inhibit CYP 2C9, through which warfarin and some other drugs with a narrow therapeutic index are metabolized.6
Herbal supplements. Ginkgo biloba and huperzine A (Chinese club moss) are the herbal supplements used most commonly by dementia patients. Ginkgo inhibits platelet aggregation and can cause bleeding complications, with or without concomitant antiplatelet or anticoagulant therapy such as aspirin, warfarin, and NSAIDs. Enzyme induction of CYP 2C19 by ginkgo, leading to subtherapeutic levels of anticonvulsants, has been implicated in a report of fatal seizures. Huperzine A is a natural cholinesterase inhibitor and should not be combined with AChEIs because of the risk of additive adverse effects.10
Related resources
- Jacobson SA, Pies RW, Greenblatt DJ. Handbook of geriatric psychopharmacology. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing; 2002.
- Sandson, NB. Drug-drug interaction primer. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing; 2007.
- Amantadine • Symmetrel
- Amitriptyline • Elavil
- Amoxapine • Asendin
- Aripiprazole • Abilify
- Atropine • Sal-Tropine
- Benztropine • Cogentin
- Bethanechol • Urecholine
- Biperiden • Akineton
- Bupropion • Wellbutrin
- Buspirone • BuSpar
- Carbamazepine • Tegretol
- Celecoxib • Celebrex
- Chlorpheniramine • Chlor-Trimeton
- Chlorpromazine • Thorazine
- Cimetidine • Tagamet
- Citalopram • Celexa
- Clomipramine • Anafranil
- Clozapine • Clozaril
- Cyclobenzaprine • Flexeril
- Cyproheptadine • Periactin
- Dextromethorphan • Benylin, Delsym, others
- Dicyclomine • Bentyl
- Digoxin • Lanoxin
- Diphenhydramine • Benadryl
- Disopyramide • Norpace
- Donepezil • Aricept
- Doxepin • Adapin, Sinequan
- Duloxetine • Cymbalta
- Escitalopram • Lexapro
- Erythromycin • E-Mycin
- Fluconazole • Diflucan
- Fluvoxamine • Luvox
- Fluoxetine • Prozac
- Galantamine • Reminyl, Razadyne
- Haloperidol • Haldol
- Hydroxyzine • Vistaril
- Hyoscyamine • Anaspaz, Levbid, Levsin
- Imipramine • Tofranil
- Itraconazole • Sporanox
- Lamotrigine • Lamictal
- Levodopa/carbidopa • Sinemet
- Lithium • Eskalith, Lithobid
- Lorazepam • Ativan
- Meclizine • Antivert
- Memantine • Namenda
- Mirtazapine • Remeron
- Nefazodone • Serzone
- Neostigmine • Prostigmin
- Olanzapine • Zyprexa
- Oxazepam • Serax
- Oxybutynin • Ditropan
- Paroxetine • Paxil
- Pimozide • Orap
- Promethazine • Phenergan
- Protriptyline • Vivactil
- Pyridostigmine • Mestinon
- Quetiapine • Seroquel
- Ranitidine • Zantac
- Risperidone • Risperdal
- Rivastigmine • Exelon
- Scopolamine • Scopace
- Sertraline • Zoloft
- Succinylcholine • Anectine
- Temazepam • Restoril
- Thioridazine • Mellaril
- Tolterodine • Detrol
- Trazodone • Desyrel
- Trihexyphenidyl • Artane
- Valproate • Depakote
- Venlafaxine • Effexor
- Warfarin • Coumadin
- Ziprasidone • Geodon
- Zolpidem • Ambien
The author reports no financial relationship with any company whose products are mentioned in this article or with manufacturers of competing products.
1. Prescription drugs and the elderly: many still receive potentially harmful drugs despite recent improvements. Washington, DC: United States General Accounting Office; 1996. Publication HEHS 95-152.
2. Atkin PA, Veitch PC, Veitch EM, Ogle SJ. The epidemiology of serious adverse drug reactions among the elderly. Drugs Aging 1999;14:141-52.
3. Marangell LB, Martinez JM, Silver JM, Yudofsky SC, eds. Concise guide to psychopharmacology. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing; 2002:4-7, 129,173, 171-80.
4. Roose SP, Pollock BG, Devanand DD. Treatment during late life. In: Schatzberg AF, Nemeroff CB, eds. Textbook of psychopharmacology. 3rd ed. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing; 2004:1083-5.
5. Bentue-Ferrer D, Tribut O, Polard E, Allain H. Clinically significant drug interactions with cholinesterase inhibitors: a guide for neurologists. CNS Drugs 2003;17:947-63.
6. Mulsant BH, Pollock BG. Psychopharmacology. In: Blazer DG, Steffens DC, Busse EW, eds. Textbook of geriatric psychiatry. 3rd ed. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing; 2004:387-411.
7. Sandson NB, Marcucci C, Bourke DL, Smith-Lamacchia R. An interaction between aspirin and valproate: the relevance of plasma protein displacement drug-drug interaction. Am J Psychiatry 2006;163:1891-6.
8. Spina E, Scordo MG, D’Arrigo C. Metabolic drug interactions with new psychotropic agents. Fundam Clin Pharmacol 2003;17:517-38.
9. Grossberg GT, Stahelin HB, Messina JC, et al. Lack of adverse pharmacodynamic drug interactions with rivastigmine and twenty-two classes of medications. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry 2000;15:242-7.
10. Beier MT. Harmless herbs? Think again: merits of a complete medication history. J Am Med Dir Assoc 2006;7:446-7.
11. [No authors listed]. Alzheimer’s disease: beware of interactions with cholinesterase inhibitors. Prescrire Int 2006;15:103-6.
12. Grossberg GT, Edwards KR, Zhao Q. Rationale for combining therapy with galantamine and memantine in Alzheimer’s disease. J Clin Pharmacol 2006;46(suppl 1):S17-S26.
13. Roe CM, Anderson MJ, Spivack B. Use of anticholinergic medications by older adults with dementia. J Am Geriatr Soc 2002;50:836-42.
14. Carnahan RM, Lund BC, Perry PJ, Chrischilles EA. The concurrent use of anticholinergics and cholinesterase inhibitors: rare event or common practice? J Am Geriatr Soc 2004;52:2082-7.
15. Schrag A. Psychiatric aspects of Parkinson’s disease. J Neurol 2004;251:795-804.
16. Okereke CS, Kirby L, Kumar D, et al. Concurrent administration of donepezil HCl and levodopa/carbidopa in patients with Parkinson’s disease: assessment of pharmacokinetic changes and safety following multiple oral doses. Br J Clin Pharmacol 2004;58(suppl 1):41-9.
17. Weiser M, Rotmensch HH, Korczyn AD, et al. A pilot, randomized, open-label trial assessing safety and pharmacokinetic parameters of co-administration of rivastigmine with risperidone in dementia patients with behavioral disturbances. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry 2002;17:343-6.
18. Schneider LS, Dagerman K, Insel PS. Efficacy and adverse events of atypical antipsychotics for dementia: meta-analysis of randomized, placebo-controlled trials. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry 2006;14(3):191-210.
19. Koenig HG, Blazer DG. Mood disorders. In: Blazer DG, Steffens DC, Busse EW, eds. Textbook of geriatric psychiatry 3rd ed. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing; 2004:254.
20. Jacobson SA, Pies RW, Greenblatt DJ. Anxiolytic and sedative-hypnotic medications. In: Handbook of geriatric psychopharmacology. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing; 2002:249-312.
1. Prescription drugs and the elderly: many still receive potentially harmful drugs despite recent improvements. Washington, DC: United States General Accounting Office; 1996. Publication HEHS 95-152.
2. Atkin PA, Veitch PC, Veitch EM, Ogle SJ. The epidemiology of serious adverse drug reactions among the elderly. Drugs Aging 1999;14:141-52.
3. Marangell LB, Martinez JM, Silver JM, Yudofsky SC, eds. Concise guide to psychopharmacology. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing; 2002:4-7, 129,173, 171-80.
4. Roose SP, Pollock BG, Devanand DD. Treatment during late life. In: Schatzberg AF, Nemeroff CB, eds. Textbook of psychopharmacology. 3rd ed. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing; 2004:1083-5.
5. Bentue-Ferrer D, Tribut O, Polard E, Allain H. Clinically significant drug interactions with cholinesterase inhibitors: a guide for neurologists. CNS Drugs 2003;17:947-63.
6. Mulsant BH, Pollock BG. Psychopharmacology. In: Blazer DG, Steffens DC, Busse EW, eds. Textbook of geriatric psychiatry. 3rd ed. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing; 2004:387-411.
7. Sandson NB, Marcucci C, Bourke DL, Smith-Lamacchia R. An interaction between aspirin and valproate: the relevance of plasma protein displacement drug-drug interaction. Am J Psychiatry 2006;163:1891-6.
8. Spina E, Scordo MG, D’Arrigo C. Metabolic drug interactions with new psychotropic agents. Fundam Clin Pharmacol 2003;17:517-38.
9. Grossberg GT, Stahelin HB, Messina JC, et al. Lack of adverse pharmacodynamic drug interactions with rivastigmine and twenty-two classes of medications. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry 2000;15:242-7.
10. Beier MT. Harmless herbs? Think again: merits of a complete medication history. J Am Med Dir Assoc 2006;7:446-7.
11. [No authors listed]. Alzheimer’s disease: beware of interactions with cholinesterase inhibitors. Prescrire Int 2006;15:103-6.
12. Grossberg GT, Edwards KR, Zhao Q. Rationale for combining therapy with galantamine and memantine in Alzheimer’s disease. J Clin Pharmacol 2006;46(suppl 1):S17-S26.
13. Roe CM, Anderson MJ, Spivack B. Use of anticholinergic medications by older adults with dementia. J Am Geriatr Soc 2002;50:836-42.
14. Carnahan RM, Lund BC, Perry PJ, Chrischilles EA. The concurrent use of anticholinergics and cholinesterase inhibitors: rare event or common practice? J Am Geriatr Soc 2004;52:2082-7.
15. Schrag A. Psychiatric aspects of Parkinson’s disease. J Neurol 2004;251:795-804.
16. Okereke CS, Kirby L, Kumar D, et al. Concurrent administration of donepezil HCl and levodopa/carbidopa in patients with Parkinson’s disease: assessment of pharmacokinetic changes and safety following multiple oral doses. Br J Clin Pharmacol 2004;58(suppl 1):41-9.
17. Weiser M, Rotmensch HH, Korczyn AD, et al. A pilot, randomized, open-label trial assessing safety and pharmacokinetic parameters of co-administration of rivastigmine with risperidone in dementia patients with behavioral disturbances. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry 2002;17:343-6.
18. Schneider LS, Dagerman K, Insel PS. Efficacy and adverse events of atypical antipsychotics for dementia: meta-analysis of randomized, placebo-controlled trials. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry 2006;14(3):191-210.
19. Koenig HG, Blazer DG. Mood disorders. In: Blazer DG, Steffens DC, Busse EW, eds. Textbook of geriatric psychiatry 3rd ed. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing; 2004:254.
20. Jacobson SA, Pies RW, Greenblatt DJ. Anxiolytic and sedative-hypnotic medications. In: Handbook of geriatric psychopharmacology. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing; 2002:249-312.