Robert J. Fontana, MD

Alcohol use disorder (AUD) is a mosaic of psychiatric and medical symptoms. Alcoholic liver disease (ALD) in its acute and chronic forms is a common clinical consequence of long-standing AUD. Patients with ALD require specialized care from pro­fessionals in addiction, gastroenterology, and psychiatry. However, medical specialists treating ALD might not regularly consider medi­cations to treat AUD because of their limited experience with the drugs or the lack of studies in patients with significant liver disease.¹ Similarly, psychiatrists might be reticent to prescribe medications for AUD, fearing that liver disease will be made worse or that they will cause other medical complications. As a result, patients with ALD might not receive care that could help treat their AUD (Box).

Given the high worldwide prevalence and morbidity of ALD,² gen­eral and subspecialized psychiatrists routinely evaluate patients with AUD in and out of the hospital. This article aims to equip a psychia­trist with:
   • a practical understanding of the natural history and categorization of ALD
   • basic skills to detect symptoms of ALD
   • preparation to collaborate with medical colleagues in multidisciplinary management of co-occurring AUD and ALD
   • a summary of the pharmacotherapeutics of AUD, with emphasis on patients with clinically apparent ALD.

Categorization and clinical features
Alcoholic liver damage encompasses a spectrum of disorders, including alcoholic fatty liver, acute alcohol hepatitis (AH), and cirrhosis following varying durations and patterns of alcohol use. Manifestations of ALD vary from asymptomatic fatty liver with minimal liver enzyme eleva­tion to severe acute AH with jaundice, coagulopathy, and high short-term mor­tality (Table 1). Symptoms seen in patients with AH include fever, abdominal pain, anorexia, jaundice, leukocytosis, and coagulopathy.³

Patients with chronic ALD often develop cirrhosis, persistent elevation of the serum aminotransferase level (even after pro­longed alcohol abstinence), signs of portal hypertension (ascites, encephalopathy, var­iceal bleeding), and profound malnutrition. The survival of ALD patients with chronic liver failure is predicted in part by a Model for End-Stage Liver Disease (MELD) score that incorporates their serum total biliru­bin level, creatinine level, and international normalized ratio. The MELD score, which ranges from 6 to 40, also is used to gauge the need for liver transplantation; most patients who have a MELD score >15 ben­efit from transplant. To definitively deter­mine the severity of ALD, a liver biopsy is required but usually is not performed in clinical practice.

All patients who drink heavily or suffer with AUD are at risk of developing AH; women and binge drinkers are particu­larly vulnerable.⁴ Liver dysfunction and malnutrition in ALD patients compromise the immune system, increasing the risk of infection. Patients hospitalized with AH have a 10% to 30% risk of inpatient mor­tality; their 1- and 2-month post-discharge survival is 50% to 65%, largely determined by whether the patient can maintain sobri­ety.⁵ Psychiatrists’ contribution to ALD treatment therefore has the potential to save lives.

Screening and detection of ALD
Because of the high mortality associated with AH and cirrhosis, symptom recogni­tion and collaborative medical and psy­chiatric management are critical (Table 2). A psychiatrist evaluating a jaun­diced patient who continues to drink should arrange urgent medical evaluation. While gathering a history, mental health providers might hear a patient refer to symptoms of gastrointestinal bleeding (vomiting blood, bloody or dark stool), painful abdominal distension, fevers, or confusion that should prompt a referral to a gastroenterologist or the emergency department. Testing for uri­nary ethyl glucuronide—a direct metabolite of ethanol that can be detected for as long as 90 hours after ethanol ingestion—is use­ful in detecting alcohol use in the past 4 or 5 days.

Medical management of ALD
Corticosteroids are a mainstay in pharma­cotherapy for severe AH. There is evidence for improved outcomes in patients with severe AH treated with prednisolone for 4 to 6 weeks.⁵ Prognostic models such as the Maddrey’s Discriminant Function, Lille Model, and the MELD score help determine the need for steroid use and identify high-risk patients. Patients with active infection or bleeding are not a candidate for steroid treatment. An experienced gastroenterolo­gist or hepatologist should initiate medical intervention after thorough evaluation.

Liver transplantation. A select group of patients with refractory liver failure are con­sidered for liver transplantation. Although transplant programs differ in their criteria for organ listing, many require patients to demonstrate at least 6 months of verified abstinence from alcohol and illicit drugs as well as adherence to a formal AUD treat­ment and rehabilitation plan. The patient’s psychological health and prognosis for sus­tained sobriety are central to candidacy for organ listing, which highlights the key role of psychiatrists.

Further considerations. Thiamine and folate often are given to patients with ALD. Abdominal imaging and screening for HIV and viral hepatitis—identified in 10% to 20% of ALD patients—is routine. Alcohol absti­nence remains central to survival because relapse increases the risk of recurrent, severe liver disease. Regrettably, many physical symptoms of liver disease, such as portal hypertension, ascites, and jaundice, can take months to improve with abstinence.

 

Treating AUD in patients with ALD
Successful treatment is multifaceted and includes more than just medications. Initial management often includes addressing alcohol withdrawal in dependent patients.⁶

Behavioral interventions are effective and indispensable components in prevent­ing relapse,⁷ including a written relapse prevention plan that formally outlines the patient’s commitment to change, identi­fies triggers, and outlines a discrete plan of action. Primary psychiatric pathology, including depression and anxiety, often are comorbid with AUD; concurrent treatment of these disorders could improve patient outcomes.⁸

Benzodiazepines often are used during acute alcohol withdrawal. They should not be used for relapse prevention in ALD because of their additive interactions with alcohol, cognitive and psychomotor side effects, and abuse potential.^9,10 Many of these drugs are cleared by the liver and generally are not recommended for use in patients with ALD.

Other agents, further considerations. Drug trials in AUD largely have been con­ducted in small, heterogeneous populations and revealed modest and, at times, con­flicting drug effect sizes.^6,11,12 The placebo effect among the AUD population is pro­nounced.^6,7,13 Despite these caveats, several agents have been studied and validated by the FDA to treat AUD. Additional agents with promising pilot data are being inves­tigated. Table 3^{1,7,10,11,13-43} summa­rizes drugs used to treat AUD—those with and without FDA approval—with a focus on how they might be used in patients with ALD. Of note, several of these agents do not rely on the liver for metabolism or excretion.

There is no agreed-upon algorithm or safety profile to guide a prescriber’s deci­sion making about drug or dosage choices when treating AUD in patients with ALD. Because liver function can vary among patients as well as during an individual patient’s disease course, treatment deci­sions should be made on a clinical, collab­orative, and case-by-case basis.

That being said, the AUD treatment liter­ature suggests that specific drugs might be more useful in patients with varying sever­ity of disease and during different phases of recovery:
   • Acamprosate has been found to be effective in supporting abstinence in sober patients.^14,44
   • Naltrexone has been shown to be useful in patients with severe alcohol cravings. By modulating alcohol’s rewarding effects, naltrexone also reduces heavy alcohol consumption in patients who are drinking.^14,15,44
   • Disulfiram generally is not recommended for use in patients with clinically apparent hepatic insufficiency, such as decompensated cirrhosis or preexisting jaundice.

Although alcohol abstinence remains the treatment goal and a requirement for liver transplant, providers must recognize that some patients might not be able to maintain long-term sobriety. Therefore, harm reduc­tion models are important companions to abstinence-only models of AUD treatment.⁴⁵ The array of behavioral, pharmacologi­cal, and philosophical approaches to AUD treatment underlines the need for an indi­vidualized approach to relapse prevention.

Collaboration between medicine and psychiatry
When AUD and ALD are comorbid, psy­chiatrists might worry about making the patient’s medical condition worse by pre­scribing additional psychoactive medica­tions—particularly ones that are cleared by the liver. Remember that AUD confers a substantial mortality rate that is more than 3 times that of the general population, along with severe medical⁴⁶ and psycho­social³¹ effects. Although prescribers must remain vigilant for adverse drug effects, medications easily can be blamed for what might be the natural progression and symp­toms of AUD in patients with ALD.²⁶ This erroneous conclusion can lead to premature medication discontinuation and under-treatment of AUD.

In the end, keeping the patient sober and mentally well might be more beneficial than eliminating the burden of any medica­tion side effects. Collaborative medical and psychiatric management of ALD patients can ensure that clinicians properly weigh the risks, benefits, and duration of treat­ment unique to each patient.

Starting AUD treatment promptly after alcohol relapse is essential and entails a multidisciplinary effort between medicine and psychiatry, both in and out of the hos­pital. Because the relapsing, ill ALD patient most often will be admitted to a medical specialist, AUD might not receive enough attention during the medical admission. Psychiatrists can help in initiating AUD treatment in the acute medical setting, which has been shown to improve the out­patient course.⁶ For medically stable ALD patients admitted for inpatient psychiatric care or presenting a clinic, the mental health clinician should be aware of key laboratory and physical exam findings.

Bottom Line
Patients with alcoholic liver disease (ALD) require collaborative care from specialists in addiction, gastroenterology, and psychiatry. Psychiatrists have a role in identifying signs of ALD, prescribing medication to treat alcohol use disorder, and encouraging abstinence. There is some evidence supporting specific medications for varying severity of disease and different phases of recovery. Pharmacotherapy decisions should be made case by case.

 

Related Resources
• Khan A, Tansel A, White DL, et al. Efficacy of psychosocial interventions in inducing and maintaining alcohol abstinence in patients with chronic liver disease: a systematic review [published online August 6, 2015]. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol. doi: 10.1016/j.cgh.2015.07.047.
• Vuittonet CL, Halse M, Leggio L, et al. Pharmacotherapy for alcoholic patients with alcoholic liver disease. Am J Health Syst Pharm. 2014;71(15):1265-1276.

Drug Brand Names
Acamprosate • Campral                       
Baclofen • Lioresal                              
Disulfiram • Antabuse                          
Gabapentin • Neurontin                       
Naltrexone • ReVia, Vivitrol
Pentoxifylline • Trental
Prednisolone • Prelone
Rifaximin • Xifaxan
Topiramate • Topamax

Disclosures
Dr. Winder and Dr. Mellinger report no financial relationships with any company whose products are mentioned in this article or with manufacturers of competing products. Dr. Fontana receives research funding from Bristol Myers Squibb, Gilead, and Janssen and consults for the Chronic Liver Disease Foundation.

Alcohol use disorder (AUD) is a mosaic of psychiatric and medical symptoms. Alcoholic liver disease (ALD) in its acute and chronic forms is a common clinical consequence of long-standing AUD. Patients with ALD require specialized care from pro­fessionals in addiction, gastroenterology, and psychiatry. However, medical specialists treating ALD might not regularly consider medi­cations to treat AUD because of their limited experience with the drugs or the lack of studies in patients with significant liver disease.¹ Similarly, psychiatrists might be reticent to prescribe medications for AUD, fearing that liver disease will be made worse or that they will cause other medical complications. As a result, patients with ALD might not receive care that could help treat their AUD (Box).

Given the high worldwide prevalence and morbidity of ALD,² gen­eral and subspecialized psychiatrists routinely evaluate patients with AUD in and out of the hospital. This article aims to equip a psychia­trist with:
   • a practical understanding of the natural history and categorization of ALD
   • basic skills to detect symptoms of ALD
   • preparation to collaborate with medical colleagues in multidisciplinary management of co-occurring AUD and ALD
   • a summary of the pharmacotherapeutics of AUD, with emphasis on patients with clinically apparent ALD.

Categorization and clinical features
Alcoholic liver damage encompasses a spectrum of disorders, including alcoholic fatty liver, acute alcohol hepatitis (AH), and cirrhosis following varying durations and patterns of alcohol use. Manifestations of ALD vary from asymptomatic fatty liver with minimal liver enzyme eleva­tion to severe acute AH with jaundice, coagulopathy, and high short-term mor­tality (Table 1). Symptoms seen in patients with AH include fever, abdominal pain, anorexia, jaundice, leukocytosis, and coagulopathy.³

Patients with chronic ALD often develop cirrhosis, persistent elevation of the serum aminotransferase level (even after pro­longed alcohol abstinence), signs of portal hypertension (ascites, encephalopathy, var­iceal bleeding), and profound malnutrition. The survival of ALD patients with chronic liver failure is predicted in part by a Model for End-Stage Liver Disease (MELD) score that incorporates their serum total biliru­bin level, creatinine level, and international normalized ratio. The MELD score, which ranges from 6 to 40, also is used to gauge the need for liver transplantation; most patients who have a MELD score >15 ben­efit from transplant. To definitively deter­mine the severity of ALD, a liver biopsy is required but usually is not performed in clinical practice.

All patients who drink heavily or suffer with AUD are at risk of developing AH; women and binge drinkers are particu­larly vulnerable.⁴ Liver dysfunction and malnutrition in ALD patients compromise the immune system, increasing the risk of infection. Patients hospitalized with AH have a 10% to 30% risk of inpatient mor­tality; their 1- and 2-month post-discharge survival is 50% to 65%, largely determined by whether the patient can maintain sobri­ety.⁵ Psychiatrists’ contribution to ALD treatment therefore has the potential to save lives.

Screening and detection of ALD
Because of the high mortality associated with AH and cirrhosis, symptom recogni­tion and collaborative medical and psy­chiatric management are critical (Table 2). A psychiatrist evaluating a jaun­diced patient who continues to drink should arrange urgent medical evaluation. While gathering a history, mental health providers might hear a patient refer to symptoms of gastrointestinal bleeding (vomiting blood, bloody or dark stool), painful abdominal distension, fevers, or confusion that should prompt a referral to a gastroenterologist or the emergency department. Testing for uri­nary ethyl glucuronide—a direct metabolite of ethanol that can be detected for as long as 90 hours after ethanol ingestion—is use­ful in detecting alcohol use in the past 4 or 5 days.

Medical management of ALD
Corticosteroids are a mainstay in pharma­cotherapy for severe AH. There is evidence for improved outcomes in patients with severe AH treated with prednisolone for 4 to 6 weeks.⁵ Prognostic models such as the Maddrey’s Discriminant Function, Lille Model, and the MELD score help determine the need for steroid use and identify high-risk patients. Patients with active infection or bleeding are not a candidate for steroid treatment. An experienced gastroenterolo­gist or hepatologist should initiate medical intervention after thorough evaluation.

Liver transplantation. A select group of patients with refractory liver failure are con­sidered for liver transplantation. Although transplant programs differ in their criteria for organ listing, many require patients to demonstrate at least 6 months of verified abstinence from alcohol and illicit drugs as well as adherence to a formal AUD treat­ment and rehabilitation plan. The patient’s psychological health and prognosis for sus­tained sobriety are central to candidacy for organ listing, which highlights the key role of psychiatrists.

Further considerations. Thiamine and folate often are given to patients with ALD. Abdominal imaging and screening for HIV and viral hepatitis—identified in 10% to 20% of ALD patients—is routine. Alcohol absti­nence remains central to survival because relapse increases the risk of recurrent, severe liver disease. Regrettably, many physical symptoms of liver disease, such as portal hypertension, ascites, and jaundice, can take months to improve with abstinence.

 

Treating AUD in patients with ALD
Successful treatment is multifaceted and includes more than just medications. Initial management often includes addressing alcohol withdrawal in dependent patients.⁶

Behavioral interventions are effective and indispensable components in prevent­ing relapse,⁷ including a written relapse prevention plan that formally outlines the patient’s commitment to change, identi­fies triggers, and outlines a discrete plan of action. Primary psychiatric pathology, including depression and anxiety, often are comorbid with AUD; concurrent treatment of these disorders could improve patient outcomes.⁸

Benzodiazepines often are used during acute alcohol withdrawal. They should not be used for relapse prevention in ALD because of their additive interactions with alcohol, cognitive and psychomotor side effects, and abuse potential.^9,10 Many of these drugs are cleared by the liver and generally are not recommended for use in patients with ALD.

Other agents, further considerations. Drug trials in AUD largely have been con­ducted in small, heterogeneous populations and revealed modest and, at times, con­flicting drug effect sizes.^6,11,12 The placebo effect among the AUD population is pro­nounced.^6,7,13 Despite these caveats, several agents have been studied and validated by the FDA to treat AUD. Additional agents with promising pilot data are being inves­tigated. Table 3^{1,7,10,11,13-43} summa­rizes drugs used to treat AUD—those with and without FDA approval—with a focus on how they might be used in patients with ALD. Of note, several of these agents do not rely on the liver for metabolism or excretion.

There is no agreed-upon algorithm or safety profile to guide a prescriber’s deci­sion making about drug or dosage choices when treating AUD in patients with ALD. Because liver function can vary among patients as well as during an individual patient’s disease course, treatment deci­sions should be made on a clinical, collab­orative, and case-by-case basis.

That being said, the AUD treatment liter­ature suggests that specific drugs might be more useful in patients with varying sever­ity of disease and during different phases of recovery:
   • Acamprosate has been found to be effective in supporting abstinence in sober patients.^14,44
   • Naltrexone has been shown to be useful in patients with severe alcohol cravings. By modulating alcohol’s rewarding effects, naltrexone also reduces heavy alcohol consumption in patients who are drinking.^14,15,44
   • Disulfiram generally is not recommended for use in patients with clinically apparent hepatic insufficiency, such as decompensated cirrhosis or preexisting jaundice.

Although alcohol abstinence remains the treatment goal and a requirement for liver transplant, providers must recognize that some patients might not be able to maintain long-term sobriety. Therefore, harm reduc­tion models are important companions to abstinence-only models of AUD treatment.⁴⁵ The array of behavioral, pharmacologi­cal, and philosophical approaches to AUD treatment underlines the need for an indi­vidualized approach to relapse prevention.

Collaboration between medicine and psychiatry
When AUD and ALD are comorbid, psy­chiatrists might worry about making the patient’s medical condition worse by pre­scribing additional psychoactive medica­tions—particularly ones that are cleared by the liver. Remember that AUD confers a substantial mortality rate that is more than 3 times that of the general population, along with severe medical⁴⁶ and psycho­social³¹ effects. Although prescribers must remain vigilant for adverse drug effects, medications easily can be blamed for what might be the natural progression and symp­toms of AUD in patients with ALD.²⁶ This erroneous conclusion can lead to premature medication discontinuation and under-treatment of AUD.

In the end, keeping the patient sober and mentally well might be more beneficial than eliminating the burden of any medica­tion side effects. Collaborative medical and psychiatric management of ALD patients can ensure that clinicians properly weigh the risks, benefits, and duration of treat­ment unique to each patient.

Starting AUD treatment promptly after alcohol relapse is essential and entails a multidisciplinary effort between medicine and psychiatry, both in and out of the hos­pital. Because the relapsing, ill ALD patient most often will be admitted to a medical specialist, AUD might not receive enough attention during the medical admission. Psychiatrists can help in initiating AUD treatment in the acute medical setting, which has been shown to improve the out­patient course.⁶ For medically stable ALD patients admitted for inpatient psychiatric care or presenting a clinic, the mental health clinician should be aware of key laboratory and physical exam findings.

Bottom Line
Patients with alcoholic liver disease (ALD) require collaborative care from specialists in addiction, gastroenterology, and psychiatry. Psychiatrists have a role in identifying signs of ALD, prescribing medication to treat alcohol use disorder, and encouraging abstinence. There is some evidence supporting specific medications for varying severity of disease and different phases of recovery. Pharmacotherapy decisions should be made case by case.

 

Related Resources
• Khan A, Tansel A, White DL, et al. Efficacy of psychosocial interventions in inducing and maintaining alcohol abstinence in patients with chronic liver disease: a systematic review [published online August 6, 2015]. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol. doi: 10.1016/j.cgh.2015.07.047.
• Vuittonet CL, Halse M, Leggio L, et al. Pharmacotherapy for alcoholic patients with alcoholic liver disease. Am J Health Syst Pharm. 2014;71(15):1265-1276.

Drug Brand Names
Acamprosate • Campral                       
Baclofen • Lioresal                              
Disulfiram • Antabuse                          
Gabapentin • Neurontin                       
Naltrexone • ReVia, Vivitrol
Pentoxifylline • Trental
Prednisolone • Prelone
Rifaximin • Xifaxan
Topiramate • Topamax

Disclosures
Dr. Winder and Dr. Mellinger report no financial relationships with any company whose products are mentioned in this article or with manufacturers of competing products. Dr. Fontana receives research funding from Bristol Myers Squibb, Gilead, and Janssen and consults for the Chronic Liver Disease Foundation.

Alcohol use disorder (AUD) is a mosaic of psychiatric and medical symptoms. Alcoholic liver disease (ALD) in its acute and chronic forms is a common clinical consequence of long-standing AUD. Patients with ALD require specialized care from pro­fessionals in addiction, gastroenterology, and psychiatry. However, medical specialists treating ALD might not regularly consider medi­cations to treat AUD because of their limited experience with the drugs or the lack of studies in patients with significant liver disease.¹ Similarly, psychiatrists might be reticent to prescribe medications for AUD, fearing that liver disease will be made worse or that they will cause other medical complications. As a result, patients with ALD might not receive care that could help treat their AUD (Box).

Given the high worldwide prevalence and morbidity of ALD,² gen­eral and subspecialized psychiatrists routinely evaluate patients with AUD in and out of the hospital. This article aims to equip a psychia­trist with:
   • a practical understanding of the natural history and categorization of ALD
   • basic skills to detect symptoms of ALD
   • preparation to collaborate with medical colleagues in multidisciplinary management of co-occurring AUD and ALD
   • a summary of the pharmacotherapeutics of AUD, with emphasis on patients with clinically apparent ALD.

Categorization and clinical features
Alcoholic liver damage encompasses a spectrum of disorders, including alcoholic fatty liver, acute alcohol hepatitis (AH), and cirrhosis following varying durations and patterns of alcohol use. Manifestations of ALD vary from asymptomatic fatty liver with minimal liver enzyme eleva­tion to severe acute AH with jaundice, coagulopathy, and high short-term mor­tality (Table 1). Symptoms seen in patients with AH include fever, abdominal pain, anorexia, jaundice, leukocytosis, and coagulopathy.³

Patients with chronic ALD often develop cirrhosis, persistent elevation of the serum aminotransferase level (even after pro­longed alcohol abstinence), signs of portal hypertension (ascites, encephalopathy, var­iceal bleeding), and profound malnutrition. The survival of ALD patients with chronic liver failure is predicted in part by a Model for End-Stage Liver Disease (MELD) score that incorporates their serum total biliru­bin level, creatinine level, and international normalized ratio. The MELD score, which ranges from 6 to 40, also is used to gauge the need for liver transplantation; most patients who have a MELD score >15 ben­efit from transplant. To definitively deter­mine the severity of ALD, a liver biopsy is required but usually is not performed in clinical practice.

All patients who drink heavily or suffer with AUD are at risk of developing AH; women and binge drinkers are particu­larly vulnerable.⁴ Liver dysfunction and malnutrition in ALD patients compromise the immune system, increasing the risk of infection. Patients hospitalized with AH have a 10% to 30% risk of inpatient mor­tality; their 1- and 2-month post-discharge survival is 50% to 65%, largely determined by whether the patient can maintain sobri­ety.⁵ Psychiatrists’ contribution to ALD treatment therefore has the potential to save lives.

Screening and detection of ALD
Because of the high mortality associated with AH and cirrhosis, symptom recogni­tion and collaborative medical and psy­chiatric management are critical (Table 2). A psychiatrist evaluating a jaun­diced patient who continues to drink should arrange urgent medical evaluation. While gathering a history, mental health providers might hear a patient refer to symptoms of gastrointestinal bleeding (vomiting blood, bloody or dark stool), painful abdominal distension, fevers, or confusion that should prompt a referral to a gastroenterologist or the emergency department. Testing for uri­nary ethyl glucuronide—a direct metabolite of ethanol that can be detected for as long as 90 hours after ethanol ingestion—is use­ful in detecting alcohol use in the past 4 or 5 days.

Medical management of ALD
Corticosteroids are a mainstay in pharma­cotherapy for severe AH. There is evidence for improved outcomes in patients with severe AH treated with prednisolone for 4 to 6 weeks.⁵ Prognostic models such as the Maddrey’s Discriminant Function, Lille Model, and the MELD score help determine the need for steroid use and identify high-risk patients. Patients with active infection or bleeding are not a candidate for steroid treatment. An experienced gastroenterolo­gist or hepatologist should initiate medical intervention after thorough evaluation.

Liver transplantation. A select group of patients with refractory liver failure are con­sidered for liver transplantation. Although transplant programs differ in their criteria for organ listing, many require patients to demonstrate at least 6 months of verified abstinence from alcohol and illicit drugs as well as adherence to a formal AUD treat­ment and rehabilitation plan. The patient’s psychological health and prognosis for sus­tained sobriety are central to candidacy for organ listing, which highlights the key role of psychiatrists.

Further considerations. Thiamine and folate often are given to patients with ALD. Abdominal imaging and screening for HIV and viral hepatitis—identified in 10% to 20% of ALD patients—is routine. Alcohol absti­nence remains central to survival because relapse increases the risk of recurrent, severe liver disease. Regrettably, many physical symptoms of liver disease, such as portal hypertension, ascites, and jaundice, can take months to improve with abstinence.

 

Treating AUD in patients with ALD
Successful treatment is multifaceted and includes more than just medications. Initial management often includes addressing alcohol withdrawal in dependent patients.⁶

Behavioral interventions are effective and indispensable components in prevent­ing relapse,⁷ including a written relapse prevention plan that formally outlines the patient’s commitment to change, identi­fies triggers, and outlines a discrete plan of action. Primary psychiatric pathology, including depression and anxiety, often are comorbid with AUD; concurrent treatment of these disorders could improve patient outcomes.⁸

Benzodiazepines often are used during acute alcohol withdrawal. They should not be used for relapse prevention in ALD because of their additive interactions with alcohol, cognitive and psychomotor side effects, and abuse potential.^9,10 Many of these drugs are cleared by the liver and generally are not recommended for use in patients with ALD.

Other agents, further considerations. Drug trials in AUD largely have been con­ducted in small, heterogeneous populations and revealed modest and, at times, con­flicting drug effect sizes.^6,11,12 The placebo effect among the AUD population is pro­nounced.^6,7,13 Despite these caveats, several agents have been studied and validated by the FDA to treat AUD. Additional agents with promising pilot data are being inves­tigated. Table 3^{1,7,10,11,13-43} summa­rizes drugs used to treat AUD—those with and without FDA approval—with a focus on how they might be used in patients with ALD. Of note, several of these agents do not rely on the liver for metabolism or excretion.

There is no agreed-upon algorithm or safety profile to guide a prescriber’s deci­sion making about drug or dosage choices when treating AUD in patients with ALD. Because liver function can vary among patients as well as during an individual patient’s disease course, treatment deci­sions should be made on a clinical, collab­orative, and case-by-case basis.

That being said, the AUD treatment liter­ature suggests that specific drugs might be more useful in patients with varying sever­ity of disease and during different phases of recovery:
   • Acamprosate has been found to be effective in supporting abstinence in sober patients.^14,44
   • Naltrexone has been shown to be useful in patients with severe alcohol cravings. By modulating alcohol’s rewarding effects, naltrexone also reduces heavy alcohol consumption in patients who are drinking.^14,15,44
   • Disulfiram generally is not recommended for use in patients with clinically apparent hepatic insufficiency, such as decompensated cirrhosis or preexisting jaundice.

Although alcohol abstinence remains the treatment goal and a requirement for liver transplant, providers must recognize that some patients might not be able to maintain long-term sobriety. Therefore, harm reduc­tion models are important companions to abstinence-only models of AUD treatment.⁴⁵ The array of behavioral, pharmacologi­cal, and philosophical approaches to AUD treatment underlines the need for an indi­vidualized approach to relapse prevention.

Collaboration between medicine and psychiatry
When AUD and ALD are comorbid, psy­chiatrists might worry about making the patient’s medical condition worse by pre­scribing additional psychoactive medica­tions—particularly ones that are cleared by the liver. Remember that AUD confers a substantial mortality rate that is more than 3 times that of the general population, along with severe medical⁴⁶ and psycho­social³¹ effects. Although prescribers must remain vigilant for adverse drug effects, medications easily can be blamed for what might be the natural progression and symp­toms of AUD in patients with ALD.²⁶ This erroneous conclusion can lead to premature medication discontinuation and under-treatment of AUD.

In the end, keeping the patient sober and mentally well might be more beneficial than eliminating the burden of any medica­tion side effects. Collaborative medical and psychiatric management of ALD patients can ensure that clinicians properly weigh the risks, benefits, and duration of treat­ment unique to each patient.

Starting AUD treatment promptly after alcohol relapse is essential and entails a multidisciplinary effort between medicine and psychiatry, both in and out of the hos­pital. Because the relapsing, ill ALD patient most often will be admitted to a medical specialist, AUD might not receive enough attention during the medical admission. Psychiatrists can help in initiating AUD treatment in the acute medical setting, which has been shown to improve the out­patient course.⁶ For medically stable ALD patients admitted for inpatient psychiatric care or presenting a clinic, the mental health clinician should be aware of key laboratory and physical exam findings.

Bottom Line
Patients with alcoholic liver disease (ALD) require collaborative care from specialists in addiction, gastroenterology, and psychiatry. Psychiatrists have a role in identifying signs of ALD, prescribing medication to treat alcohol use disorder, and encouraging abstinence. There is some evidence supporting specific medications for varying severity of disease and different phases of recovery. Pharmacotherapy decisions should be made case by case.

 

Related Resources
• Khan A, Tansel A, White DL, et al. Efficacy of psychosocial interventions in inducing and maintaining alcohol abstinence in patients with chronic liver disease: a systematic review [published online August 6, 2015]. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol. doi: 10.1016/j.cgh.2015.07.047.
• Vuittonet CL, Halse M, Leggio L, et al. Pharmacotherapy for alcoholic patients with alcoholic liver disease. Am J Health Syst Pharm. 2014;71(15):1265-1276.

Drug Brand Names
Acamprosate • Campral                       
Baclofen • Lioresal                              
Disulfiram • Antabuse                          
Gabapentin • Neurontin                       
Naltrexone • ReVia, Vivitrol
Pentoxifylline • Trental
Prednisolone • Prelone
Rifaximin • Xifaxan
Topiramate • Topamax

Disclosures
Dr. Winder and Dr. Mellinger report no financial relationships with any company whose products are mentioned in this article or with manufacturers of competing products. Dr. Fontana receives research funding from Bristol Myers Squibb, Gilead, and Janssen and consults for the Chronic Liver Disease Foundation.