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How to talk to patients about religion and spirituality
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In the midst of turmoil and suffering, patients often search for meaning and interpret their circumstances in the context of their religious or spiritual (R/S) beliefs. National polling data show that most Americans identify themselves as R/S, and inpatient and outpatient studies demonstrate that patients want clinicians to inquire about their R/S beliefs.1 In addition, R/S beliefs can benefit patients as a source of well-being, hope, purpose, higher self-esteem, coping, and social support.2 Given the importance of R/S to patients, psychiatrists should seek to understand their patient’s distress in the context of their beliefs.
Why is it hard for psychiatrists to bring up the subject? Psychiatrists might be hesitant to discuss R/S beliefs with patients because of personal discomfort, limited training opportunities during residency and in clinical practice, or time or economic constraints.3 Psychiatrists tend to be less R/S than the general population4 and may fear that they are being perceived as overly intrusive or offensive.
When should we inquire about spirituality and religion? Take an R/S history during each new patient evaluation and when admitting a patient for hospitalization, and include this information in the social history.5 Doing so could lead to a chaplain referral when appropriate. Questions about R/S beliefs usually are not perceived as intrusive if asked along with other questions that focus on patients’ social support system and may help identify barriers to self-harm or harm to others.
How do we start the conversation? There are several ways to start the discussion about R/S that are engaging, efficient, respectful, and caring. Start with simple questions, such as “Is R/S an important part of your life?” or “Do you rely on your faith during a difficult time like this?”
If your patient answers yes to these questions, consider exploring:
- How does your patient use R/S? Does he or she use it to cope with mental illness, or is it a source of distress? Is it both?
- How would your patient like you to address R/S in your work together?
- Is your patient a member of an R/S community, and if so, is it a source of support for him or her?
- Is your patient interested in working collaboratively with an R/S provider—eg, clergy, pastoral counselor?
If your patients say R/S is not important to them or they do not rely on faith, ask if R/S has been important to them in the past. Also, have them consider what gives their life meaning and hope, what is sacred to them, and who or what will help them cope during a difficult time.
Disclosure
Dr. Clark and the Reverend Doctor King report no financial relationship with any company whose products are mentioned in this article or with manufacturers of competing products.
Dr. Harrison is a consultant to the Samaritan Center of Puget Sound, Seattle, WA.
Acknowledgement
The authors thank J. Gary Trantham, MD, for his assistance with this article.
1. Puchalski C. Spiritual assessment in clinical practice. Psychiatr Ann. 2006;36(3):150-155.
2. Moreira-Almeida A, Neto FL, Koenig HG. Religiousness and mental health: a review. Rev Bras Psiquiatr. 2006;28(3):242-250.
3. Griffith JL. Managing religious countertransference in clinical settings. Psychiatr Ann. 2006;36(3):196-204.
4. Curlin FA, Lawrence RE, Odell S, et al. Religion, spirituality, and medicine: psychiatrists’ and other physicians’ differing observations, interpretations, and clinical approaches. Am J Psychiatry. 2007;164(12):1825-1831.
5. Koenig HG. Spirituality in patient care: why how, when, and what. West Conshohocken, PA: Templeton Press; 2007.
Discuss this article at www.facebook.com/CurrentPsychiatry
In the midst of turmoil and suffering, patients often search for meaning and interpret their circumstances in the context of their religious or spiritual (R/S) beliefs. National polling data show that most Americans identify themselves as R/S, and inpatient and outpatient studies demonstrate that patients want clinicians to inquire about their R/S beliefs.1 In addition, R/S beliefs can benefit patients as a source of well-being, hope, purpose, higher self-esteem, coping, and social support.2 Given the importance of R/S to patients, psychiatrists should seek to understand their patient’s distress in the context of their beliefs.
Why is it hard for psychiatrists to bring up the subject? Psychiatrists might be hesitant to discuss R/S beliefs with patients because of personal discomfort, limited training opportunities during residency and in clinical practice, or time or economic constraints.3 Psychiatrists tend to be less R/S than the general population4 and may fear that they are being perceived as overly intrusive or offensive.
When should we inquire about spirituality and religion? Take an R/S history during each new patient evaluation and when admitting a patient for hospitalization, and include this information in the social history.5 Doing so could lead to a chaplain referral when appropriate. Questions about R/S beliefs usually are not perceived as intrusive if asked along with other questions that focus on patients’ social support system and may help identify barriers to self-harm or harm to others.
How do we start the conversation? There are several ways to start the discussion about R/S that are engaging, efficient, respectful, and caring. Start with simple questions, such as “Is R/S an important part of your life?” or “Do you rely on your faith during a difficult time like this?”
If your patient answers yes to these questions, consider exploring:
- How does your patient use R/S? Does he or she use it to cope with mental illness, or is it a source of distress? Is it both?
- How would your patient like you to address R/S in your work together?
- Is your patient a member of an R/S community, and if so, is it a source of support for him or her?
- Is your patient interested in working collaboratively with an R/S provider—eg, clergy, pastoral counselor?
If your patients say R/S is not important to them or they do not rely on faith, ask if R/S has been important to them in the past. Also, have them consider what gives their life meaning and hope, what is sacred to them, and who or what will help them cope during a difficult time.
Disclosure
Dr. Clark and the Reverend Doctor King report no financial relationship with any company whose products are mentioned in this article or with manufacturers of competing products.
Dr. Harrison is a consultant to the Samaritan Center of Puget Sound, Seattle, WA.
Acknowledgement
The authors thank J. Gary Trantham, MD, for his assistance with this article.
Discuss this article at www.facebook.com/CurrentPsychiatry
In the midst of turmoil and suffering, patients often search for meaning and interpret their circumstances in the context of their religious or spiritual (R/S) beliefs. National polling data show that most Americans identify themselves as R/S, and inpatient and outpatient studies demonstrate that patients want clinicians to inquire about their R/S beliefs.1 In addition, R/S beliefs can benefit patients as a source of well-being, hope, purpose, higher self-esteem, coping, and social support.2 Given the importance of R/S to patients, psychiatrists should seek to understand their patient’s distress in the context of their beliefs.
Why is it hard for psychiatrists to bring up the subject? Psychiatrists might be hesitant to discuss R/S beliefs with patients because of personal discomfort, limited training opportunities during residency and in clinical practice, or time or economic constraints.3 Psychiatrists tend to be less R/S than the general population4 and may fear that they are being perceived as overly intrusive or offensive.
When should we inquire about spirituality and religion? Take an R/S history during each new patient evaluation and when admitting a patient for hospitalization, and include this information in the social history.5 Doing so could lead to a chaplain referral when appropriate. Questions about R/S beliefs usually are not perceived as intrusive if asked along with other questions that focus on patients’ social support system and may help identify barriers to self-harm or harm to others.
How do we start the conversation? There are several ways to start the discussion about R/S that are engaging, efficient, respectful, and caring. Start with simple questions, such as “Is R/S an important part of your life?” or “Do you rely on your faith during a difficult time like this?”
If your patient answers yes to these questions, consider exploring:
- How does your patient use R/S? Does he or she use it to cope with mental illness, or is it a source of distress? Is it both?
- How would your patient like you to address R/S in your work together?
- Is your patient a member of an R/S community, and if so, is it a source of support for him or her?
- Is your patient interested in working collaboratively with an R/S provider—eg, clergy, pastoral counselor?
If your patients say R/S is not important to them or they do not rely on faith, ask if R/S has been important to them in the past. Also, have them consider what gives their life meaning and hope, what is sacred to them, and who or what will help them cope during a difficult time.
Disclosure
Dr. Clark and the Reverend Doctor King report no financial relationship with any company whose products are mentioned in this article or with manufacturers of competing products.
Dr. Harrison is a consultant to the Samaritan Center of Puget Sound, Seattle, WA.
Acknowledgement
The authors thank J. Gary Trantham, MD, for his assistance with this article.
1. Puchalski C. Spiritual assessment in clinical practice. Psychiatr Ann. 2006;36(3):150-155.
2. Moreira-Almeida A, Neto FL, Koenig HG. Religiousness and mental health: a review. Rev Bras Psiquiatr. 2006;28(3):242-250.
3. Griffith JL. Managing religious countertransference in clinical settings. Psychiatr Ann. 2006;36(3):196-204.
4. Curlin FA, Lawrence RE, Odell S, et al. Religion, spirituality, and medicine: psychiatrists’ and other physicians’ differing observations, interpretations, and clinical approaches. Am J Psychiatry. 2007;164(12):1825-1831.
5. Koenig HG. Spirituality in patient care: why how, when, and what. West Conshohocken, PA: Templeton Press; 2007.
1. Puchalski C. Spiritual assessment in clinical practice. Psychiatr Ann. 2006;36(3):150-155.
2. Moreira-Almeida A, Neto FL, Koenig HG. Religiousness and mental health: a review. Rev Bras Psiquiatr. 2006;28(3):242-250.
3. Griffith JL. Managing religious countertransference in clinical settings. Psychiatr Ann. 2006;36(3):196-204.
4. Curlin FA, Lawrence RE, Odell S, et al. Religion, spirituality, and medicine: psychiatrists’ and other physicians’ differing observations, interpretations, and clinical approaches. Am J Psychiatry. 2007;164(12):1825-1831.
5. Koenig HG. Spirituality in patient care: why how, when, and what. West Conshohocken, PA: Templeton Press; 2007.
How to care for patients who have delusions with religious content
Discuss this article at www.facebook.com/CurrentPsychiatry
Mr. D, a 72-year-old Christian with a long history of schizophrenia, presents to the emergency room with concerns about evil spirits in his home who have poisoned him. He has called for police assistance on numerous occasions and has tried to kill the evil spirits with his rifle, but states “they are bulletproof.” He is unable to sleep and is “fearful for my life every night because that is when the demons come out.” Mr. D also believes that God is “more powerful than the evil spirits.” Two elders at his church have prayed with him and encouraged him to go to the hospital.
Delusions with religious content (DRC) are associated with poorer clinical outcomes and dangerousness.1-6 Most mental health professionals will encounter patients with DRC because this type of delusion is relatively common in patients with symptoms of mania or psychosis. For example, in a study of 193 inpatients with schizophrenia, 24% had religious delusions.1 The prevalence of DRC varies considerably among populations and can be influenced by the local religion and culture.7-9 This article reviews clinical challenges and assessment and management strategies for patients with DRC.
A challenging course
In a UK study of 193 inpatients with schizophrenia, compared with patients with other types of delusions, those with DRC:
- had higher Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale scores and lower Global Assessment of Functioning scores
- waited longer before reengaging in treatment
- were prescribed more medications.1
In addition, compared with patients with other types of delusions, patients with DRC often hold these delusions with greater conviction,1,2 making them more challenging to treat.
Dangerousness in patients with DRC can manifest as self-harm or harm to others. Extreme examples include self-inflicted enucleation of the eye and autocastration. In a review of 9 cases of severe ocular self-injury, 4 patients had DRC.3 Genital self-mutilation associated with DRC is rare, but several cases of psychotic men who performed autocastration based on a literal, erroneous interpretation of a passage in the Bible (Matthew 19:12) have been reported.4,5 Patients with DRC have committed rape and murder because they believed they were the antichrist.6
In this article we use the phrase “delusions with religious content” instead of “religious delusions” because this distinction highlights that many subtypes of delusions can have a religious theme. Categories of delusions with religious themes include:
- persecutory (often involving Satan)
- grandiose (messianic delusions)
- guilt delusions.
Categorizing DRC is important because some are associated with more distress or dangerousness than others. For example, case studies of self-inflicted eye injuries found that most patients had guilt delusions with religious themes that referenced punishing transgressions, controlling unacceptable sexual impulses, and attaining prescience by destroying vision.3,10 In our example, Mr. D is experiencing a persecutory DRC. Also, using the label “religious delusion” can inadvertently pathologize religious experiences.
Tips for effective evaluation
DSM-IV-TR offers no specific guidelines for assessing DRC vs nondelusional religious beliefs.11 There is risk of pathologizing religious beliefs when listening to content alone.11-15 Instead, focus on the conviction, pervasiveness,2 uniqueness or bizarreness, and associated emotional distress of the delusion to the patient (Table 1).2,12,16-18
In the context of the patient’s spiritual history, deviations from conventional religious beliefs and practices are important factors in determining whether a religious belief is authentic or delusional. Involving family members and/or spiritual care professionals (eg, chaplains and clergy) can be especially helpful when making this differentiation.16,17 In the hospital, chaplains often are familiar with a variety of faith traditions and may provide important insight into the patient’s beliefs. In the community, clergy members from the patient’s faith also may provide valuable perspective.
Similar to how having a basic familiarity with a patient’s culture can improve care, a better understanding of a patient’s spiritual or religious beliefs and practices can build rapport and the therapeutic alliance.16,17 This is particularly important with patients with DRC because these individuals often have a poor therapeutic alliance and engagement with providers.19 Because many psychiatrists have limited time and may not be familiar with every patient’s spiritual or religious background, consultation with spiritual care professionals may be helpful.
Assess whether your patient has reservations about psychiatric treatment. Some may believe that seeking care from a doctor is evidence of weak faith, whereas others may feel that psychiatric treatment is forbidden or incompatible with their religious beliefs.19-22 Mental health clinicians need to consider their own religious biases that may cause them to minimize or pathologize a patient’s religiosity.20,23 Working collaboratively with spiritual care professionals may help reduce clinician biases or assumptions.24
Table 1
Assessing patients with DRC
| Use caution when making a diagnosis to decrease risk of pathologizing religious beliefs |
| Do not focus solely on the content of the delusion; instead look at conviction, pervasiveness, bizarreness, and associated distress |
| Look at the spiritual/religious context and deviations from conventional religious beliefs of the patient’s culture |
| Establish an open dialogue with the patient, the family, and individuals from the patient’s faith community to understand the psychosocial issues and any reservations about psychiatric care |
| Be aware of the categories of delusions, especially those associated with harm (eg, grandiose antichrist delusions, guilt delusions, and some persecutory delusions) |
| Perform a thorough safety assessment that includes previous self-harm, drug use, and severity of mental illness |
| Be vigilant for patients who are actively seeking evidence to support their misguided/dangerous beliefs |
| DRC: delusions with religious content Source: References 2,12,16-18 |
Evaluating safety
When constructing a differential diagnosis and evaluating patients for safety, remember that DRC are a feature of many psychiatric disorders (eg, persecutory DRC in schizophrenia, grandiose DRC in mania). Consider the course and severity of the patient’s illness, and determine if he or she has a history or evidence of self-injury or substance abuse. Be cognizant of the categories of delusions in the context of the diagnosis. For example, grandiose delusions that involve the antichrist can be associated with harm toward others.6 Patients who express extreme feelings of guilt or shame (as seen in psychotic depression) and the need to be physically punished may be at risk for self-harm. Finally, patients seeking evidence to support misguided and dangerous beliefs—for example, obsessing over a religious text regarding self-injury while in a delusional state—may be at high risk for self-harm.18
Researchers have suggested clinicians question patients to determine if they trust their delusions.25 Patients who trust their delusions may appear calm if they already have decided to act on their thoughts.25 Preventive measures for patients at risk of self-harm include close observation, hospitalization, and pharmacotherapy.
Pharmacotherapy for DRC
There are no clear recommendations on specific psychotropics or dosages for treating patients with DRC. When a patient with DRC is at high risk of self-harm or harming others, using antipsychotics, anxiolytics, hypnotics, or a combination of these agents sometimes is needed to quell agitation, along with close observation and restraints when necessary (Table 2).5,18,25,26 Mr. D benefited from risperidone, 3 mg at bedtime, and zolpidem, 10 mg as needed for insomnia.
Table 2
Treating patients with DRC
| If a patient is at risk for self-harm or harming others, take preventive measures such as hospitalization or close observation |
| Rapid tranquilization may be necessary to reduce risk of harm |
| Encourage positive religious coping and spiritual practices, when appropriate |
| DRC: delusions with religious content Source: References 5,18,25,26 |
Using spirituality to cope
Many persistently mentally ill patients identify themselves as religious and use religious activities or beliefs to cope with their illness.27,28 In a study of 1,824 seriously mentally ill patients, self-reports of religiousness were positively associated with psychological well-being and diminished psychiatric symptoms.29 Longitudinal research has shown that some aspects of spirituality and religion are associated with positive mental and physical health effects, whereas other aspects can worsen symptoms.30 Specifically, positive religious coping such as benevolent religious reappraisals (eg, “Jesus is my shield and savior”), collaborative religious coping, and spiritual support are associated with positive mental health.31 However, negative religious coping, such as punishing God reappraisals and reappraisals of God’s power (eg, “my illness is punishment for my sins”), are associated with distress and personal loss.32
For patients with psychotic disorders—and with schizophrenia in particular—religious beliefs can be a source of meaning, hope, strength, and recovery. In a study of 115 outpatients with psychosis, 71% used positive religious coping, compared with 14% who used negative religious coping.33 Among 38 patients with DRC, 45% used spirituality and religion to help cope with their illness, even though they received less support from religious communities than patients with other types of delusions.19 In this study, the authors suggest that positive religious coping among patients with DRC may alleviate delusion severity by decreasing levels of conviction and fear and preventing maladjusted behaviors.19 Religious beliefs and activities are associated with fewer hospitalizations among patients with persistent mental illness28 and are a significant protective factor against suicide in patients with psychotic disorders.34,35 However, some studies have found that intense, obsessive participation in spiritual activities can worsen psychiatric symptoms and undermine recovery.1,36,37
Addressing religion in treatment.
Although many studies have emphasized the importance of religion to patients with psychosis, evidence-based guidelines on how best to address religion/spirituality in the clinical setting in patients with psychosis have yet to be established. In a 2011 study, a spiritual assessment was well tolerated by 40 patients with psychotic disorders and improved patients’ appointment attendance compared with a control group who received traditional care only.26
Many mental health providers feel ill-equipped or are uncomfortable exploring spiritual or religious issues with patients. Enlisting the help of spiritual care professionals when assessing patients with DRC may improve evaluation and care (Table 3). Spiritual care professionals typically are experienced in exploring subjects associated with DRC, such as guilt, morality, conscience, repentance, and confession.24 Spiritual care professionals also may be able to assist patients with religious coping and provide comfort and support.
Finally, spiritual care professionals can help patients connect or reconnect to a spiritual or religious community. In Mr. D’s case, the hospital chaplain deterred him from focusing on the reason the evil spirits were trying to punish him and guided him toward positive religious coping. Mr. D felt we were listening to him on a deeper level and understanding his spiritual struggles. The chaplain’s involvement also enhanced Mr. D’s relationship with the psychiatrist.
Table 3
When to elicit help from spiritual care professionals
| To better understand the patient’s religious background |
| To reduce biases when the clinician comes from a different religious background or no religious background |
| To help identify positive and negative religious coping, and to reinforce positive coping |
| To connect or reconnect patients to members of their faith community or to help them find a religious community |
Related Resources
- Mohr S, Borras L, Betrisey C, et al. Delusions with religious content in patients with psychosis: how they interact with spiritual coping. Psychiatry. 2010;73(2):158-172.
- Huguelet P, Mohr S, Betrisey C, et al. A randomized trial of spiritual assessment of outpatients with schizophrenia: patients’ and clinicians’ experience. Psychiatr Serv. 2011;62(1):79-86.
Drug Brand Names
- Risperidone • Risperdal
- Zolpidem • Ambien
Disclosure
The authors report no financial relationship with any company whose products are mentioned in this article or with manufacturers of competing products.
Acknowledgements
The authors acknowledge the support and guidance of Rev. Sean Doll O’Mahoney, Rev. Julie Hanada, Rev. Stephen King, PhD, Rev. George Fitchett, PhD, Patricia Murphy, PhD, LCPC, and Kevin Flannelly, PhD.
1. Siddle R, Haddock G, Tarrier N, et al. Religious delusions in patients admitted to hospital with schizophrenia. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol. 2002;37(3):130-138.
2. Appelbaum PS, Robbins PC, Roth LH. Dimensional approach to delusions: comparison across types and diagnoses. Am J Psychiatry. 1999;156(12):1938-1943.
3. Field HL, Waldfogel S. Severe ocular self-injury. Gen Hosp Psychiatry. 1995;17(3):224-227.
4. Kushner AW. Two cases of auto-castration due to religious delusions. Br J Med Psychol. 1967;40(3):293-298.
5. Waugh AC. Autocastration and biblical delusions in schizophrenia. Br J Psychiatry. 1986;149:656-658.
6. Silva JA, Leong GB, Weinstock R. Violent behaviors associated with the antichrist delusion. J Forensic Sci. 1997;42(6):1058-1061.
7. Atallah SF, El-Dosoky AR, Coker EM, et al. A 22-year retrospective analysis of the changing frequency and patterns of religious symptoms among inpatients with psychotic illness in Egypt. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol. 2001;36(8):407-415.
8. Bhavsar V, Bhugra D. Religious delusions: finding meanings in psychosis. Psychopathology. 2008;41(3):165-172.
9. Kim K, Hwu H, Zhang LD, et al. Schizophrenic delusions in Seoul, Shanghai and Taipei: a transcultural study. J Korean Med Sci. 2001;16(1):88-94.
10. Kennedy BL, Feldmann TB. Self-inflicted eye injuries: case presentations and a literature review. Hosp Community Psychiatry. 1994;45(5):470-474.
11. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, 4th ed, text rev. Washington DC: American Psychiatric Association; 2000.
12. Sanderson S, Vandenberg B, Paese P. Authentic religious experience or insanity? J Clin Psychol. 1999;55(5):607-616.
13. O’Connor S, Vandenberg B. Psychosis of faith? Clinicians’ assessment of religious beliefs. J Consult Clin Psychol. 2005;73(4):610-616.
14. Spitzer M. On defining delusions. Compr Psychiatry. 1990;31(5):377-397.
15. Pierre JM. Faith or delusion? At the crossroads of religion and psychosis. J Psychiatr Pract. 2001;7(3):163-172.
16. Blass DM. A pragmatic approach to teaching psychiatry residents the assessment and treatment of religious patients. Acad Psychiatry. 2007;31(1):25-31.
17. Westermeyer J. Cultural factors in clinical assessment. J Consult Clin Psychol. 1987;55(4):471-478.
18. Clark RA. Self-mutilation accompanying religious delusions: a case report and review. J Clin Psychiatry. 1981;42(6):243-245.
19. Mohr S, Borras L, Betrisey C, et al. Delusions with religious content in patients with psychosis: how they interact with spiritual coping. Psychiatry. 2010;73(2):158-172.
20. Greenberg D, Witztum E. Problems in the treatment of religious patients. Am J Psychother. 1991;45(4):554-565.
21. Peteet JR. Issues in the treatment of religious patients. Am J Psychother. 1981;35(4):559-564.
22. Borras L, Mohr S, Brandt PY, et al. Religious beliefs in schizophrenia: their relevance for adherence to treatment. Schizophr Bull. 2007;33(5):1238-1246.
23. Ng F. The interface between religion and psychosis. Australas Psychiatry. 2007;15(1):62-66.
24. Sacks JM. Religious issues in psychotherapy. J Relig Health. 1985;24(1):26-30.
25. Shore D, Anderson DJ, Cutler NR. Prediction of self-mutilation in hospitalized schizophrenics. Am J Psychiatry. 1978;135(11):1406-1407.
26. Huguelet P, Mohr S, Betrisey C, et al. A randomized trial of spiritual assessment of outpatients with schizophrenia: patients’ and clinicians’ experience. Psychiatr Serv. 2011;62(1):79-86.
27. Kroll J, Sheehan W. Religious beliefs and practices among 52 psychiatric inpatients in Minnesota. Am J Psychiatry. 1989;146(1):67-72.
28. Tepper L, Rogers SA, Coleman EM, et al. The prevalence of religious coping among persons with persistent mental illness. Psychiatr Serv. 2001;52(5):660-665.
29. Corrigan P, McCorkle B, Schell B, et al. Religion and spirituality in the lives of people with serious mental illness. Community Ment Health J. 2003;39(6):487-499.
30. Koenig HG, McCullough ME, Larson DB. Handbook of religion and health. New York NY: Oxford University Press; 2001.
31. Pargament KI, Koenig HG, Perez LM. The many methods of religious coping: development and initial validation of the RCOPE. J Clin Psychol. 2000;56(4):519-543.
32. Phillips RE, III, Stein CH. God’s will God’s punishment, or God’s limitations? Religious coping strategies reported by young adults living with serious mental illness. J Clin Psychol. 2007;63(6):529-540.
33. Mohr S, Brandt PY, Borras L, et al. Toward an integration of spirituality and religiousness into the psychosocial dimension of schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry. 2006;163(11):1952-1959.
34. Breier A, Astrachan BM. Characterization of schizophrenic patients who commit suicide. Am J Psychiatry. 1984;141(2):206-209.
35. Jarbin H, Von Knorring AL. Suicide and suicide attempts in adolescent-onset psychotic disorders. Nord J Psychiatry. 2004;58(2):115-123.
36. Brewerton TD. Hyperreligiosity in psychotic disorders. J Nerv Ment Dis. 1994;182(5):302-304.
37. Getz GE, Fleck DE, Strakowski SM. Frequency and severity of religious delusions in Christian patients with psychosis. Psychiatry Res. 2001;103(1):87-91.
Discuss this article at www.facebook.com/CurrentPsychiatry
Mr. D, a 72-year-old Christian with a long history of schizophrenia, presents to the emergency room with concerns about evil spirits in his home who have poisoned him. He has called for police assistance on numerous occasions and has tried to kill the evil spirits with his rifle, but states “they are bulletproof.” He is unable to sleep and is “fearful for my life every night because that is when the demons come out.” Mr. D also believes that God is “more powerful than the evil spirits.” Two elders at his church have prayed with him and encouraged him to go to the hospital.
Delusions with religious content (DRC) are associated with poorer clinical outcomes and dangerousness.1-6 Most mental health professionals will encounter patients with DRC because this type of delusion is relatively common in patients with symptoms of mania or psychosis. For example, in a study of 193 inpatients with schizophrenia, 24% had religious delusions.1 The prevalence of DRC varies considerably among populations and can be influenced by the local religion and culture.7-9 This article reviews clinical challenges and assessment and management strategies for patients with DRC.
A challenging course
In a UK study of 193 inpatients with schizophrenia, compared with patients with other types of delusions, those with DRC:
- had higher Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale scores and lower Global Assessment of Functioning scores
- waited longer before reengaging in treatment
- were prescribed more medications.1
In addition, compared with patients with other types of delusions, patients with DRC often hold these delusions with greater conviction,1,2 making them more challenging to treat.
Dangerousness in patients with DRC can manifest as self-harm or harm to others. Extreme examples include self-inflicted enucleation of the eye and autocastration. In a review of 9 cases of severe ocular self-injury, 4 patients had DRC.3 Genital self-mutilation associated with DRC is rare, but several cases of psychotic men who performed autocastration based on a literal, erroneous interpretation of a passage in the Bible (Matthew 19:12) have been reported.4,5 Patients with DRC have committed rape and murder because they believed they were the antichrist.6
In this article we use the phrase “delusions with religious content” instead of “religious delusions” because this distinction highlights that many subtypes of delusions can have a religious theme. Categories of delusions with religious themes include:
- persecutory (often involving Satan)
- grandiose (messianic delusions)
- guilt delusions.
Categorizing DRC is important because some are associated with more distress or dangerousness than others. For example, case studies of self-inflicted eye injuries found that most patients had guilt delusions with religious themes that referenced punishing transgressions, controlling unacceptable sexual impulses, and attaining prescience by destroying vision.3,10 In our example, Mr. D is experiencing a persecutory DRC. Also, using the label “religious delusion” can inadvertently pathologize religious experiences.
Tips for effective evaluation
DSM-IV-TR offers no specific guidelines for assessing DRC vs nondelusional religious beliefs.11 There is risk of pathologizing religious beliefs when listening to content alone.11-15 Instead, focus on the conviction, pervasiveness,2 uniqueness or bizarreness, and associated emotional distress of the delusion to the patient (Table 1).2,12,16-18
In the context of the patient’s spiritual history, deviations from conventional religious beliefs and practices are important factors in determining whether a religious belief is authentic or delusional. Involving family members and/or spiritual care professionals (eg, chaplains and clergy) can be especially helpful when making this differentiation.16,17 In the hospital, chaplains often are familiar with a variety of faith traditions and may provide important insight into the patient’s beliefs. In the community, clergy members from the patient’s faith also may provide valuable perspective.
Similar to how having a basic familiarity with a patient’s culture can improve care, a better understanding of a patient’s spiritual or religious beliefs and practices can build rapport and the therapeutic alliance.16,17 This is particularly important with patients with DRC because these individuals often have a poor therapeutic alliance and engagement with providers.19 Because many psychiatrists have limited time and may not be familiar with every patient’s spiritual or religious background, consultation with spiritual care professionals may be helpful.
Assess whether your patient has reservations about psychiatric treatment. Some may believe that seeking care from a doctor is evidence of weak faith, whereas others may feel that psychiatric treatment is forbidden or incompatible with their religious beliefs.19-22 Mental health clinicians need to consider their own religious biases that may cause them to minimize or pathologize a patient’s religiosity.20,23 Working collaboratively with spiritual care professionals may help reduce clinician biases or assumptions.24
Table 1
Assessing patients with DRC
| Use caution when making a diagnosis to decrease risk of pathologizing religious beliefs |
| Do not focus solely on the content of the delusion; instead look at conviction, pervasiveness, bizarreness, and associated distress |
| Look at the spiritual/religious context and deviations from conventional religious beliefs of the patient’s culture |
| Establish an open dialogue with the patient, the family, and individuals from the patient’s faith community to understand the psychosocial issues and any reservations about psychiatric care |
| Be aware of the categories of delusions, especially those associated with harm (eg, grandiose antichrist delusions, guilt delusions, and some persecutory delusions) |
| Perform a thorough safety assessment that includes previous self-harm, drug use, and severity of mental illness |
| Be vigilant for patients who are actively seeking evidence to support their misguided/dangerous beliefs |
| DRC: delusions with religious content Source: References 2,12,16-18 |
Evaluating safety
When constructing a differential diagnosis and evaluating patients for safety, remember that DRC are a feature of many psychiatric disorders (eg, persecutory DRC in schizophrenia, grandiose DRC in mania). Consider the course and severity of the patient’s illness, and determine if he or she has a history or evidence of self-injury or substance abuse. Be cognizant of the categories of delusions in the context of the diagnosis. For example, grandiose delusions that involve the antichrist can be associated with harm toward others.6 Patients who express extreme feelings of guilt or shame (as seen in psychotic depression) and the need to be physically punished may be at risk for self-harm. Finally, patients seeking evidence to support misguided and dangerous beliefs—for example, obsessing over a religious text regarding self-injury while in a delusional state—may be at high risk for self-harm.18
Researchers have suggested clinicians question patients to determine if they trust their delusions.25 Patients who trust their delusions may appear calm if they already have decided to act on their thoughts.25 Preventive measures for patients at risk of self-harm include close observation, hospitalization, and pharmacotherapy.
Pharmacotherapy for DRC
There are no clear recommendations on specific psychotropics or dosages for treating patients with DRC. When a patient with DRC is at high risk of self-harm or harming others, using antipsychotics, anxiolytics, hypnotics, or a combination of these agents sometimes is needed to quell agitation, along with close observation and restraints when necessary (Table 2).5,18,25,26 Mr. D benefited from risperidone, 3 mg at bedtime, and zolpidem, 10 mg as needed for insomnia.
Table 2
Treating patients with DRC
| If a patient is at risk for self-harm or harming others, take preventive measures such as hospitalization or close observation |
| Rapid tranquilization may be necessary to reduce risk of harm |
| Encourage positive religious coping and spiritual practices, when appropriate |
| DRC: delusions with religious content Source: References 5,18,25,26 |
Using spirituality to cope
Many persistently mentally ill patients identify themselves as religious and use religious activities or beliefs to cope with their illness.27,28 In a study of 1,824 seriously mentally ill patients, self-reports of religiousness were positively associated with psychological well-being and diminished psychiatric symptoms.29 Longitudinal research has shown that some aspects of spirituality and religion are associated with positive mental and physical health effects, whereas other aspects can worsen symptoms.30 Specifically, positive religious coping such as benevolent religious reappraisals (eg, “Jesus is my shield and savior”), collaborative religious coping, and spiritual support are associated with positive mental health.31 However, negative religious coping, such as punishing God reappraisals and reappraisals of God’s power (eg, “my illness is punishment for my sins”), are associated with distress and personal loss.32
For patients with psychotic disorders—and with schizophrenia in particular—religious beliefs can be a source of meaning, hope, strength, and recovery. In a study of 115 outpatients with psychosis, 71% used positive religious coping, compared with 14% who used negative religious coping.33 Among 38 patients with DRC, 45% used spirituality and religion to help cope with their illness, even though they received less support from religious communities than patients with other types of delusions.19 In this study, the authors suggest that positive religious coping among patients with DRC may alleviate delusion severity by decreasing levels of conviction and fear and preventing maladjusted behaviors.19 Religious beliefs and activities are associated with fewer hospitalizations among patients with persistent mental illness28 and are a significant protective factor against suicide in patients with psychotic disorders.34,35 However, some studies have found that intense, obsessive participation in spiritual activities can worsen psychiatric symptoms and undermine recovery.1,36,37
Addressing religion in treatment.
Although many studies have emphasized the importance of religion to patients with psychosis, evidence-based guidelines on how best to address religion/spirituality in the clinical setting in patients with psychosis have yet to be established. In a 2011 study, a spiritual assessment was well tolerated by 40 patients with psychotic disorders and improved patients’ appointment attendance compared with a control group who received traditional care only.26
Many mental health providers feel ill-equipped or are uncomfortable exploring spiritual or religious issues with patients. Enlisting the help of spiritual care professionals when assessing patients with DRC may improve evaluation and care (Table 3). Spiritual care professionals typically are experienced in exploring subjects associated with DRC, such as guilt, morality, conscience, repentance, and confession.24 Spiritual care professionals also may be able to assist patients with religious coping and provide comfort and support.
Finally, spiritual care professionals can help patients connect or reconnect to a spiritual or religious community. In Mr. D’s case, the hospital chaplain deterred him from focusing on the reason the evil spirits were trying to punish him and guided him toward positive religious coping. Mr. D felt we were listening to him on a deeper level and understanding his spiritual struggles. The chaplain’s involvement also enhanced Mr. D’s relationship with the psychiatrist.
Table 3
When to elicit help from spiritual care professionals
| To better understand the patient’s religious background |
| To reduce biases when the clinician comes from a different religious background or no religious background |
| To help identify positive and negative religious coping, and to reinforce positive coping |
| To connect or reconnect patients to members of their faith community or to help them find a religious community |
Related Resources
- Mohr S, Borras L, Betrisey C, et al. Delusions with religious content in patients with psychosis: how they interact with spiritual coping. Psychiatry. 2010;73(2):158-172.
- Huguelet P, Mohr S, Betrisey C, et al. A randomized trial of spiritual assessment of outpatients with schizophrenia: patients’ and clinicians’ experience. Psychiatr Serv. 2011;62(1):79-86.
Drug Brand Names
- Risperidone • Risperdal
- Zolpidem • Ambien
Disclosure
The authors report no financial relationship with any company whose products are mentioned in this article or with manufacturers of competing products.
Acknowledgements
The authors acknowledge the support and guidance of Rev. Sean Doll O’Mahoney, Rev. Julie Hanada, Rev. Stephen King, PhD, Rev. George Fitchett, PhD, Patricia Murphy, PhD, LCPC, and Kevin Flannelly, PhD.
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Mr. D, a 72-year-old Christian with a long history of schizophrenia, presents to the emergency room with concerns about evil spirits in his home who have poisoned him. He has called for police assistance on numerous occasions and has tried to kill the evil spirits with his rifle, but states “they are bulletproof.” He is unable to sleep and is “fearful for my life every night because that is when the demons come out.” Mr. D also believes that God is “more powerful than the evil spirits.” Two elders at his church have prayed with him and encouraged him to go to the hospital.
Delusions with religious content (DRC) are associated with poorer clinical outcomes and dangerousness.1-6 Most mental health professionals will encounter patients with DRC because this type of delusion is relatively common in patients with symptoms of mania or psychosis. For example, in a study of 193 inpatients with schizophrenia, 24% had religious delusions.1 The prevalence of DRC varies considerably among populations and can be influenced by the local religion and culture.7-9 This article reviews clinical challenges and assessment and management strategies for patients with DRC.
A challenging course
In a UK study of 193 inpatients with schizophrenia, compared with patients with other types of delusions, those with DRC:
- had higher Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale scores and lower Global Assessment of Functioning scores
- waited longer before reengaging in treatment
- were prescribed more medications.1
In addition, compared with patients with other types of delusions, patients with DRC often hold these delusions with greater conviction,1,2 making them more challenging to treat.
Dangerousness in patients with DRC can manifest as self-harm or harm to others. Extreme examples include self-inflicted enucleation of the eye and autocastration. In a review of 9 cases of severe ocular self-injury, 4 patients had DRC.3 Genital self-mutilation associated with DRC is rare, but several cases of psychotic men who performed autocastration based on a literal, erroneous interpretation of a passage in the Bible (Matthew 19:12) have been reported.4,5 Patients with DRC have committed rape and murder because they believed they were the antichrist.6
In this article we use the phrase “delusions with religious content” instead of “religious delusions” because this distinction highlights that many subtypes of delusions can have a religious theme. Categories of delusions with religious themes include:
- persecutory (often involving Satan)
- grandiose (messianic delusions)
- guilt delusions.
Categorizing DRC is important because some are associated with more distress or dangerousness than others. For example, case studies of self-inflicted eye injuries found that most patients had guilt delusions with religious themes that referenced punishing transgressions, controlling unacceptable sexual impulses, and attaining prescience by destroying vision.3,10 In our example, Mr. D is experiencing a persecutory DRC. Also, using the label “religious delusion” can inadvertently pathologize religious experiences.
Tips for effective evaluation
DSM-IV-TR offers no specific guidelines for assessing DRC vs nondelusional religious beliefs.11 There is risk of pathologizing religious beliefs when listening to content alone.11-15 Instead, focus on the conviction, pervasiveness,2 uniqueness or bizarreness, and associated emotional distress of the delusion to the patient (Table 1).2,12,16-18
In the context of the patient’s spiritual history, deviations from conventional religious beliefs and practices are important factors in determining whether a religious belief is authentic or delusional. Involving family members and/or spiritual care professionals (eg, chaplains and clergy) can be especially helpful when making this differentiation.16,17 In the hospital, chaplains often are familiar with a variety of faith traditions and may provide important insight into the patient’s beliefs. In the community, clergy members from the patient’s faith also may provide valuable perspective.
Similar to how having a basic familiarity with a patient’s culture can improve care, a better understanding of a patient’s spiritual or religious beliefs and practices can build rapport and the therapeutic alliance.16,17 This is particularly important with patients with DRC because these individuals often have a poor therapeutic alliance and engagement with providers.19 Because many psychiatrists have limited time and may not be familiar with every patient’s spiritual or religious background, consultation with spiritual care professionals may be helpful.
Assess whether your patient has reservations about psychiatric treatment. Some may believe that seeking care from a doctor is evidence of weak faith, whereas others may feel that psychiatric treatment is forbidden or incompatible with their religious beliefs.19-22 Mental health clinicians need to consider their own religious biases that may cause them to minimize or pathologize a patient’s religiosity.20,23 Working collaboratively with spiritual care professionals may help reduce clinician biases or assumptions.24
Table 1
Assessing patients with DRC
| Use caution when making a diagnosis to decrease risk of pathologizing religious beliefs |
| Do not focus solely on the content of the delusion; instead look at conviction, pervasiveness, bizarreness, and associated distress |
| Look at the spiritual/religious context and deviations from conventional religious beliefs of the patient’s culture |
| Establish an open dialogue with the patient, the family, and individuals from the patient’s faith community to understand the psychosocial issues and any reservations about psychiatric care |
| Be aware of the categories of delusions, especially those associated with harm (eg, grandiose antichrist delusions, guilt delusions, and some persecutory delusions) |
| Perform a thorough safety assessment that includes previous self-harm, drug use, and severity of mental illness |
| Be vigilant for patients who are actively seeking evidence to support their misguided/dangerous beliefs |
| DRC: delusions with religious content Source: References 2,12,16-18 |
Evaluating safety
When constructing a differential diagnosis and evaluating patients for safety, remember that DRC are a feature of many psychiatric disorders (eg, persecutory DRC in schizophrenia, grandiose DRC in mania). Consider the course and severity of the patient’s illness, and determine if he or she has a history or evidence of self-injury or substance abuse. Be cognizant of the categories of delusions in the context of the diagnosis. For example, grandiose delusions that involve the antichrist can be associated with harm toward others.6 Patients who express extreme feelings of guilt or shame (as seen in psychotic depression) and the need to be physically punished may be at risk for self-harm. Finally, patients seeking evidence to support misguided and dangerous beliefs—for example, obsessing over a religious text regarding self-injury while in a delusional state—may be at high risk for self-harm.18
Researchers have suggested clinicians question patients to determine if they trust their delusions.25 Patients who trust their delusions may appear calm if they already have decided to act on their thoughts.25 Preventive measures for patients at risk of self-harm include close observation, hospitalization, and pharmacotherapy.
Pharmacotherapy for DRC
There are no clear recommendations on specific psychotropics or dosages for treating patients with DRC. When a patient with DRC is at high risk of self-harm or harming others, using antipsychotics, anxiolytics, hypnotics, or a combination of these agents sometimes is needed to quell agitation, along with close observation and restraints when necessary (Table 2).5,18,25,26 Mr. D benefited from risperidone, 3 mg at bedtime, and zolpidem, 10 mg as needed for insomnia.
Table 2
Treating patients with DRC
| If a patient is at risk for self-harm or harming others, take preventive measures such as hospitalization or close observation |
| Rapid tranquilization may be necessary to reduce risk of harm |
| Encourage positive religious coping and spiritual practices, when appropriate |
| DRC: delusions with religious content Source: References 5,18,25,26 |
Using spirituality to cope
Many persistently mentally ill patients identify themselves as religious and use religious activities or beliefs to cope with their illness.27,28 In a study of 1,824 seriously mentally ill patients, self-reports of religiousness were positively associated with psychological well-being and diminished psychiatric symptoms.29 Longitudinal research has shown that some aspects of spirituality and religion are associated with positive mental and physical health effects, whereas other aspects can worsen symptoms.30 Specifically, positive religious coping such as benevolent religious reappraisals (eg, “Jesus is my shield and savior”), collaborative religious coping, and spiritual support are associated with positive mental health.31 However, negative religious coping, such as punishing God reappraisals and reappraisals of God’s power (eg, “my illness is punishment for my sins”), are associated with distress and personal loss.32
For patients with psychotic disorders—and with schizophrenia in particular—religious beliefs can be a source of meaning, hope, strength, and recovery. In a study of 115 outpatients with psychosis, 71% used positive religious coping, compared with 14% who used negative religious coping.33 Among 38 patients with DRC, 45% used spirituality and religion to help cope with their illness, even though they received less support from religious communities than patients with other types of delusions.19 In this study, the authors suggest that positive religious coping among patients with DRC may alleviate delusion severity by decreasing levels of conviction and fear and preventing maladjusted behaviors.19 Religious beliefs and activities are associated with fewer hospitalizations among patients with persistent mental illness28 and are a significant protective factor against suicide in patients with psychotic disorders.34,35 However, some studies have found that intense, obsessive participation in spiritual activities can worsen psychiatric symptoms and undermine recovery.1,36,37
Addressing religion in treatment.
Although many studies have emphasized the importance of religion to patients with psychosis, evidence-based guidelines on how best to address religion/spirituality in the clinical setting in patients with psychosis have yet to be established. In a 2011 study, a spiritual assessment was well tolerated by 40 patients with psychotic disorders and improved patients’ appointment attendance compared with a control group who received traditional care only.26
Many mental health providers feel ill-equipped or are uncomfortable exploring spiritual or religious issues with patients. Enlisting the help of spiritual care professionals when assessing patients with DRC may improve evaluation and care (Table 3). Spiritual care professionals typically are experienced in exploring subjects associated with DRC, such as guilt, morality, conscience, repentance, and confession.24 Spiritual care professionals also may be able to assist patients with religious coping and provide comfort and support.
Finally, spiritual care professionals can help patients connect or reconnect to a spiritual or religious community. In Mr. D’s case, the hospital chaplain deterred him from focusing on the reason the evil spirits were trying to punish him and guided him toward positive religious coping. Mr. D felt we were listening to him on a deeper level and understanding his spiritual struggles. The chaplain’s involvement also enhanced Mr. D’s relationship with the psychiatrist.
Table 3
When to elicit help from spiritual care professionals
| To better understand the patient’s religious background |
| To reduce biases when the clinician comes from a different religious background or no religious background |
| To help identify positive and negative religious coping, and to reinforce positive coping |
| To connect or reconnect patients to members of their faith community or to help them find a religious community |
Related Resources
- Mohr S, Borras L, Betrisey C, et al. Delusions with religious content in patients with psychosis: how they interact with spiritual coping. Psychiatry. 2010;73(2):158-172.
- Huguelet P, Mohr S, Betrisey C, et al. A randomized trial of spiritual assessment of outpatients with schizophrenia: patients’ and clinicians’ experience. Psychiatr Serv. 2011;62(1):79-86.
Drug Brand Names
- Risperidone • Risperdal
- Zolpidem • Ambien
Disclosure
The authors report no financial relationship with any company whose products are mentioned in this article or with manufacturers of competing products.
Acknowledgements
The authors acknowledge the support and guidance of Rev. Sean Doll O’Mahoney, Rev. Julie Hanada, Rev. Stephen King, PhD, Rev. George Fitchett, PhD, Patricia Murphy, PhD, LCPC, and Kevin Flannelly, PhD.
1. Siddle R, Haddock G, Tarrier N, et al. Religious delusions in patients admitted to hospital with schizophrenia. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol. 2002;37(3):130-138.
2. Appelbaum PS, Robbins PC, Roth LH. Dimensional approach to delusions: comparison across types and diagnoses. Am J Psychiatry. 1999;156(12):1938-1943.
3. Field HL, Waldfogel S. Severe ocular self-injury. Gen Hosp Psychiatry. 1995;17(3):224-227.
4. Kushner AW. Two cases of auto-castration due to religious delusions. Br J Med Psychol. 1967;40(3):293-298.
5. Waugh AC. Autocastration and biblical delusions in schizophrenia. Br J Psychiatry. 1986;149:656-658.
6. Silva JA, Leong GB, Weinstock R. Violent behaviors associated with the antichrist delusion. J Forensic Sci. 1997;42(6):1058-1061.
7. Atallah SF, El-Dosoky AR, Coker EM, et al. A 22-year retrospective analysis of the changing frequency and patterns of religious symptoms among inpatients with psychotic illness in Egypt. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol. 2001;36(8):407-415.
8. Bhavsar V, Bhugra D. Religious delusions: finding meanings in psychosis. Psychopathology. 2008;41(3):165-172.
9. Kim K, Hwu H, Zhang LD, et al. Schizophrenic delusions in Seoul, Shanghai and Taipei: a transcultural study. J Korean Med Sci. 2001;16(1):88-94.
10. Kennedy BL, Feldmann TB. Self-inflicted eye injuries: case presentations and a literature review. Hosp Community Psychiatry. 1994;45(5):470-474.
11. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, 4th ed, text rev. Washington DC: American Psychiatric Association; 2000.
12. Sanderson S, Vandenberg B, Paese P. Authentic religious experience or insanity? J Clin Psychol. 1999;55(5):607-616.
13. O’Connor S, Vandenberg B. Psychosis of faith? Clinicians’ assessment of religious beliefs. J Consult Clin Psychol. 2005;73(4):610-616.
14. Spitzer M. On defining delusions. Compr Psychiatry. 1990;31(5):377-397.
15. Pierre JM. Faith or delusion? At the crossroads of religion and psychosis. J Psychiatr Pract. 2001;7(3):163-172.
16. Blass DM. A pragmatic approach to teaching psychiatry residents the assessment and treatment of religious patients. Acad Psychiatry. 2007;31(1):25-31.
17. Westermeyer J. Cultural factors in clinical assessment. J Consult Clin Psychol. 1987;55(4):471-478.
18. Clark RA. Self-mutilation accompanying religious delusions: a case report and review. J Clin Psychiatry. 1981;42(6):243-245.
19. Mohr S, Borras L, Betrisey C, et al. Delusions with religious content in patients with psychosis: how they interact with spiritual coping. Psychiatry. 2010;73(2):158-172.
20. Greenberg D, Witztum E. Problems in the treatment of religious patients. Am J Psychother. 1991;45(4):554-565.
21. Peteet JR. Issues in the treatment of religious patients. Am J Psychother. 1981;35(4):559-564.
22. Borras L, Mohr S, Brandt PY, et al. Religious beliefs in schizophrenia: their relevance for adherence to treatment. Schizophr Bull. 2007;33(5):1238-1246.
23. Ng F. The interface between religion and psychosis. Australas Psychiatry. 2007;15(1):62-66.
24. Sacks JM. Religious issues in psychotherapy. J Relig Health. 1985;24(1):26-30.
25. Shore D, Anderson DJ, Cutler NR. Prediction of self-mutilation in hospitalized schizophrenics. Am J Psychiatry. 1978;135(11):1406-1407.
26. Huguelet P, Mohr S, Betrisey C, et al. A randomized trial of spiritual assessment of outpatients with schizophrenia: patients’ and clinicians’ experience. Psychiatr Serv. 2011;62(1):79-86.
27. Kroll J, Sheehan W. Religious beliefs and practices among 52 psychiatric inpatients in Minnesota. Am J Psychiatry. 1989;146(1):67-72.
28. Tepper L, Rogers SA, Coleman EM, et al. The prevalence of religious coping among persons with persistent mental illness. Psychiatr Serv. 2001;52(5):660-665.
29. Corrigan P, McCorkle B, Schell B, et al. Religion and spirituality in the lives of people with serious mental illness. Community Ment Health J. 2003;39(6):487-499.
30. Koenig HG, McCullough ME, Larson DB. Handbook of religion and health. New York NY: Oxford University Press; 2001.
31. Pargament KI, Koenig HG, Perez LM. The many methods of religious coping: development and initial validation of the RCOPE. J Clin Psychol. 2000;56(4):519-543.
32. Phillips RE, III, Stein CH. God’s will God’s punishment, or God’s limitations? Religious coping strategies reported by young adults living with serious mental illness. J Clin Psychol. 2007;63(6):529-540.
33. Mohr S, Brandt PY, Borras L, et al. Toward an integration of spirituality and religiousness into the psychosocial dimension of schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry. 2006;163(11):1952-1959.
34. Breier A, Astrachan BM. Characterization of schizophrenic patients who commit suicide. Am J Psychiatry. 1984;141(2):206-209.
35. Jarbin H, Von Knorring AL. Suicide and suicide attempts in adolescent-onset psychotic disorders. Nord J Psychiatry. 2004;58(2):115-123.
36. Brewerton TD. Hyperreligiosity in psychotic disorders. J Nerv Ment Dis. 1994;182(5):302-304.
37. Getz GE, Fleck DE, Strakowski SM. Frequency and severity of religious delusions in Christian patients with psychosis. Psychiatry Res. 2001;103(1):87-91.
1. Siddle R, Haddock G, Tarrier N, et al. Religious delusions in patients admitted to hospital with schizophrenia. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol. 2002;37(3):130-138.
2. Appelbaum PS, Robbins PC, Roth LH. Dimensional approach to delusions: comparison across types and diagnoses. Am J Psychiatry. 1999;156(12):1938-1943.
3. Field HL, Waldfogel S. Severe ocular self-injury. Gen Hosp Psychiatry. 1995;17(3):224-227.
4. Kushner AW. Two cases of auto-castration due to religious delusions. Br J Med Psychol. 1967;40(3):293-298.
5. Waugh AC. Autocastration and biblical delusions in schizophrenia. Br J Psychiatry. 1986;149:656-658.
6. Silva JA, Leong GB, Weinstock R. Violent behaviors associated with the antichrist delusion. J Forensic Sci. 1997;42(6):1058-1061.
7. Atallah SF, El-Dosoky AR, Coker EM, et al. A 22-year retrospective analysis of the changing frequency and patterns of religious symptoms among inpatients with psychotic illness in Egypt. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol. 2001;36(8):407-415.
8. Bhavsar V, Bhugra D. Religious delusions: finding meanings in psychosis. Psychopathology. 2008;41(3):165-172.
9. Kim K, Hwu H, Zhang LD, et al. Schizophrenic delusions in Seoul, Shanghai and Taipei: a transcultural study. J Korean Med Sci. 2001;16(1):88-94.
10. Kennedy BL, Feldmann TB. Self-inflicted eye injuries: case presentations and a literature review. Hosp Community Psychiatry. 1994;45(5):470-474.
11. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, 4th ed, text rev. Washington DC: American Psychiatric Association; 2000.
12. Sanderson S, Vandenberg B, Paese P. Authentic religious experience or insanity? J Clin Psychol. 1999;55(5):607-616.
13. O’Connor S, Vandenberg B. Psychosis of faith? Clinicians’ assessment of religious beliefs. J Consult Clin Psychol. 2005;73(4):610-616.
14. Spitzer M. On defining delusions. Compr Psychiatry. 1990;31(5):377-397.
15. Pierre JM. Faith or delusion? At the crossroads of religion and psychosis. J Psychiatr Pract. 2001;7(3):163-172.
16. Blass DM. A pragmatic approach to teaching psychiatry residents the assessment and treatment of religious patients. Acad Psychiatry. 2007;31(1):25-31.
17. Westermeyer J. Cultural factors in clinical assessment. J Consult Clin Psychol. 1987;55(4):471-478.
18. Clark RA. Self-mutilation accompanying religious delusions: a case report and review. J Clin Psychiatry. 1981;42(6):243-245.
19. Mohr S, Borras L, Betrisey C, et al. Delusions with religious content in patients with psychosis: how they interact with spiritual coping. Psychiatry. 2010;73(2):158-172.
20. Greenberg D, Witztum E. Problems in the treatment of religious patients. Am J Psychother. 1991;45(4):554-565.
21. Peteet JR. Issues in the treatment of religious patients. Am J Psychother. 1981;35(4):559-564.
22. Borras L, Mohr S, Brandt PY, et al. Religious beliefs in schizophrenia: their relevance for adherence to treatment. Schizophr Bull. 2007;33(5):1238-1246.
23. Ng F. The interface between religion and psychosis. Australas Psychiatry. 2007;15(1):62-66.
24. Sacks JM. Religious issues in psychotherapy. J Relig Health. 1985;24(1):26-30.
25. Shore D, Anderson DJ, Cutler NR. Prediction of self-mutilation in hospitalized schizophrenics. Am J Psychiatry. 1978;135(11):1406-1407.
26. Huguelet P, Mohr S, Betrisey C, et al. A randomized trial of spiritual assessment of outpatients with schizophrenia: patients’ and clinicians’ experience. Psychiatr Serv. 2011;62(1):79-86.
27. Kroll J, Sheehan W. Religious beliefs and practices among 52 psychiatric inpatients in Minnesota. Am J Psychiatry. 1989;146(1):67-72.
28. Tepper L, Rogers SA, Coleman EM, et al. The prevalence of religious coping among persons with persistent mental illness. Psychiatr Serv. 2001;52(5):660-665.
29. Corrigan P, McCorkle B, Schell B, et al. Religion and spirituality in the lives of people with serious mental illness. Community Ment Health J. 2003;39(6):487-499.
30. Koenig HG, McCullough ME, Larson DB. Handbook of religion and health. New York NY: Oxford University Press; 2001.
31. Pargament KI, Koenig HG, Perez LM. The many methods of religious coping: development and initial validation of the RCOPE. J Clin Psychol. 2000;56(4):519-543.
32. Phillips RE, III, Stein CH. God’s will God’s punishment, or God’s limitations? Religious coping strategies reported by young adults living with serious mental illness. J Clin Psychol. 2007;63(6):529-540.
33. Mohr S, Brandt PY, Borras L, et al. Toward an integration of spirituality and religiousness into the psychosocial dimension of schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry. 2006;163(11):1952-1959.
34. Breier A, Astrachan BM. Characterization of schizophrenic patients who commit suicide. Am J Psychiatry. 1984;141(2):206-209.
35. Jarbin H, Von Knorring AL. Suicide and suicide attempts in adolescent-onset psychotic disorders. Nord J Psychiatry. 2004;58(2):115-123.
36. Brewerton TD. Hyperreligiosity in psychotic disorders. J Nerv Ment Dis. 1994;182(5):302-304.
37. Getz GE, Fleck DE, Strakowski SM. Frequency and severity of religious delusions in Christian patients with psychosis. Psychiatry Res. 2001;103(1):87-91.