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Epidemiology and Identification
Centruroides is a common genus of bark scorpions in the United States with at least 21 species considered to be medically important, including the closely related Centruroides exilicauda and Centruroides sculpturatus.1 Scorpions can be recognized by a bulbous sac and pointed stinger at the end of a tail-like abdomen. They also have long lobsterlike pedipalps (pincers) for grasping their prey. Identifying characteristics for C exilicauda and C sculpturatus include a small, slender, yellow to light brown or tan body typically measuring 1.3 to 7.6 cm in length with a subaculear tooth or tubercle at the base of the stinger, a characteristic that is common to all Centruroides species (Figure).2 Some variability in size has been shown, with smaller scorpions found in increased elevations and cooler temperatures.1,3 Both C exilicauda and C sculpturatus are found in northern Mexico as well as the southwestern United States (eg, Arizona, New Mexico, Texas, California, Nevada).1 They have a preference for residing in or around trees and often are found on the underside of bark, stones, or tables as well as inside shoes or small cracks and crevices. Scorpions typically sting in self-defense, and stings commonly occur when humans attempt to move tables, put on shoes, or walk barefoot in scorpion-infested areas. Most stings occur from the end of spring through the end summer, but many may go unreported.1,4
The venom of the Centruroides genus includes peptides and proteins that play a fundamental role in toxic activity by impairing potassium, sodium, and calcium ion channels.1,3 Toxins have been shown to be species specific, functioning either in capturing prey or deterring predators. Intraspecies variability in toxins has been demonstrated, which may complicate the production of adequate antivenin.3 Many have thought that C exilicauda Wood and C sculpturatus Ewing are the same species, and the names have been used synonymously in the past; however, genetic and biochemical studies of their venom components have shown that they are distinct species and that C sculpturatus is the more dangerous of the two.5 The median lethal dose 50% of C sculpturatus was found to be 22.7 μg in CD1 mice.6
Envenomation and Clinical Manifestations
Stings from C exilicauda and C sculpturatus have been shown to cause fatality in children more often than in adults.7 In the United States, Arizona has the highest frequency of serious symptoms of envenomation as well as the highest hospital and intensive care unit admission rates.6 Envenomation results in an immediate sharp burning pain followed by numbness.4 Wounds can produce some regional lymph node swelling, ecchymosis, paresthesia, and lymphangitis. More often than not, however, wounds have little to no inflammation and are characterized only by pain.4 The puncture wound is too small to be seen, and C exilicauda and C sculpturatus venom do not cause local tissue destruction, an important factor in distinguishing it from other scorpion envenomations.
More severe complications that may follow are caused by the neurotoxin released by Centruroides stings. The toxin components can increase the duration and amplitude of the neuronal action potential and enhance the release of neurotransmitters such as acetylcholine and norepinephrine.8 Stings can lead to cranial nerve dysfunction and somatic skeletal neuromuscular dysfunction as well as autonomic dysfunction, specifically salivation, fever, tongue and muscle fasciculations, opsoclonus, vomiting, bronchoconstriction, diaphoresis, nystagmus, blurred vision, slurred speech, hypertension, rhabdomyolysis, stridor, wheezing, aspiration, anaphylaxis, and tachycardia, leading to cardiac and respiratory compromise.4,8 Some patients have experienced a decreased sense of smell or hearing and decreased fine motor movements.7 Although pancreatitis may occur with scorpion stings, it is not common for C exilicauda.9 Comorbidities such as cardiac disease and substance use disorders contribute to prolonged length of hospital stay and poor outcome.8
Treatment
Most Centruroides stings can be managed at home, but patients with more serious symptoms and children younger than 2 years should be taken to a hospital for treatment.7 If a patient reports only pain but shows no other signs of neurotoxicity, observation and pain relief with rest, ice, and elevation is appropriate management. Patients with severe manifestations have been treated with various combinations of lorazepam, glycopyrrolate, ipratropium bromide, and ondansetron, but the only treatment definitively shown to decrease time to symptom abatement is antivenin.7 It has been demonstrated that C exilicauda and C sculpturatus antivenin is relatively safe.7 Most patients, especially adults, do not die from C exilicauda and C sculpturatus stings; therefore, antivenin more commonly is symptom abating than it is lifesaving.10 In children, time to symptom resolution was decreased to fewer than 4 hours with antivenin, and there is a lower rate of inpatient admission when antivenin is administered.4,10,11 There is a low incidence of anaphylactic reaction after antivenin, but there have been reported cases of self-limited serum sickness after antivenin use that generally can be managed with antihistamines and corticosteroids.4,7
- Gonzalez-Santillan E, Possani LD. North American scorpion species of public health importance with reappraisal of historical epidemiology. Acta Tropica. 2018;187:264-274.
- Goldsmith LA, Katz SI, Gilchrest BA, et al, eds. Fitzpatrick’s Dermatology in General Medicine. 8th ed. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill; 2012.
- Carcamo-Noriega EN, Olamendi-Portugal T, Restano-Cassulini R, et al. Intraspecific variation of Centruroides sculpturatus scorpion venom from two regions of Arizona. Arch Biochem Biophys. 2018;638:52-57.
- Kang AM, Brooks DE. Nationwide scorpion exposures reported to US Poison Control centers from 2005 to 2015. J Med Toxicol. 2017;13:158-165.
- Valdez-Cruz N, Dávila S, Licea A, et al. Biochemical, genetic and physiological characterization of venom components from two species of scorpions: Centruroides exilicauda Wood and Centruroides sculpturatus Ewing. Biochimie. 2004;86:387-396.
- Jiménez-Vargas JM, Quintero-Hernández V, Gonzáles-Morales L, et al. Design and expression of recombinant toxins from Mexican scorpions of the genus Centruroides for production of antivenoms. Toxicon. 2017;128:5-14.
- Hurst NB, Lipe DN, Karpen SR, et al. Centruroides sculpturatus envenomation in three adult patients requiring treatment with antivenom. Clin Toxicol (Phila). 2018;56:294-296.
- O’Connor A, Padilla-Jones A, Ruha A. Severe bark scorpion envenomation in adults. Clin Toxicol. 2018;56:170-174.
- Berg R, Tarantino M. Envenomation by the scorpion Centruroides exilicauda (C sculpturatus): severe and unusual manifestations. Pediatrics. 1991;87:930-933.
- LoVecchio F, McBride C. Scorpion envenomations in young children in central Arizona. J Toxicol Clin Toxicol. 2003;41:937-940.
- Rodrigo C, Gnanathasan A. Management of scorpion envenoming: a systematic review and meta-analysis of controlled clinical trials. Syst Rev. 2017;6:74.
Epidemiology and Identification
Centruroides is a common genus of bark scorpions in the United States with at least 21 species considered to be medically important, including the closely related Centruroides exilicauda and Centruroides sculpturatus.1 Scorpions can be recognized by a bulbous sac and pointed stinger at the end of a tail-like abdomen. They also have long lobsterlike pedipalps (pincers) for grasping their prey. Identifying characteristics for C exilicauda and C sculpturatus include a small, slender, yellow to light brown or tan body typically measuring 1.3 to 7.6 cm in length with a subaculear tooth or tubercle at the base of the stinger, a characteristic that is common to all Centruroides species (Figure).2 Some variability in size has been shown, with smaller scorpions found in increased elevations and cooler temperatures.1,3 Both C exilicauda and C sculpturatus are found in northern Mexico as well as the southwestern United States (eg, Arizona, New Mexico, Texas, California, Nevada).1 They have a preference for residing in or around trees and often are found on the underside of bark, stones, or tables as well as inside shoes or small cracks and crevices. Scorpions typically sting in self-defense, and stings commonly occur when humans attempt to move tables, put on shoes, or walk barefoot in scorpion-infested areas. Most stings occur from the end of spring through the end summer, but many may go unreported.1,4
The venom of the Centruroides genus includes peptides and proteins that play a fundamental role in toxic activity by impairing potassium, sodium, and calcium ion channels.1,3 Toxins have been shown to be species specific, functioning either in capturing prey or deterring predators. Intraspecies variability in toxins has been demonstrated, which may complicate the production of adequate antivenin.3 Many have thought that C exilicauda Wood and C sculpturatus Ewing are the same species, and the names have been used synonymously in the past; however, genetic and biochemical studies of their venom components have shown that they are distinct species and that C sculpturatus is the more dangerous of the two.5 The median lethal dose 50% of C sculpturatus was found to be 22.7 μg in CD1 mice.6
Envenomation and Clinical Manifestations
Stings from C exilicauda and C sculpturatus have been shown to cause fatality in children more often than in adults.7 In the United States, Arizona has the highest frequency of serious symptoms of envenomation as well as the highest hospital and intensive care unit admission rates.6 Envenomation results in an immediate sharp burning pain followed by numbness.4 Wounds can produce some regional lymph node swelling, ecchymosis, paresthesia, and lymphangitis. More often than not, however, wounds have little to no inflammation and are characterized only by pain.4 The puncture wound is too small to be seen, and C exilicauda and C sculpturatus venom do not cause local tissue destruction, an important factor in distinguishing it from other scorpion envenomations.
More severe complications that may follow are caused by the neurotoxin released by Centruroides stings. The toxin components can increase the duration and amplitude of the neuronal action potential and enhance the release of neurotransmitters such as acetylcholine and norepinephrine.8 Stings can lead to cranial nerve dysfunction and somatic skeletal neuromuscular dysfunction as well as autonomic dysfunction, specifically salivation, fever, tongue and muscle fasciculations, opsoclonus, vomiting, bronchoconstriction, diaphoresis, nystagmus, blurred vision, slurred speech, hypertension, rhabdomyolysis, stridor, wheezing, aspiration, anaphylaxis, and tachycardia, leading to cardiac and respiratory compromise.4,8 Some patients have experienced a decreased sense of smell or hearing and decreased fine motor movements.7 Although pancreatitis may occur with scorpion stings, it is not common for C exilicauda.9 Comorbidities such as cardiac disease and substance use disorders contribute to prolonged length of hospital stay and poor outcome.8
Treatment
Most Centruroides stings can be managed at home, but patients with more serious symptoms and children younger than 2 years should be taken to a hospital for treatment.7 If a patient reports only pain but shows no other signs of neurotoxicity, observation and pain relief with rest, ice, and elevation is appropriate management. Patients with severe manifestations have been treated with various combinations of lorazepam, glycopyrrolate, ipratropium bromide, and ondansetron, but the only treatment definitively shown to decrease time to symptom abatement is antivenin.7 It has been demonstrated that C exilicauda and C sculpturatus antivenin is relatively safe.7 Most patients, especially adults, do not die from C exilicauda and C sculpturatus stings; therefore, antivenin more commonly is symptom abating than it is lifesaving.10 In children, time to symptom resolution was decreased to fewer than 4 hours with antivenin, and there is a lower rate of inpatient admission when antivenin is administered.4,10,11 There is a low incidence of anaphylactic reaction after antivenin, but there have been reported cases of self-limited serum sickness after antivenin use that generally can be managed with antihistamines and corticosteroids.4,7
Epidemiology and Identification
Centruroides is a common genus of bark scorpions in the United States with at least 21 species considered to be medically important, including the closely related Centruroides exilicauda and Centruroides sculpturatus.1 Scorpions can be recognized by a bulbous sac and pointed stinger at the end of a tail-like abdomen. They also have long lobsterlike pedipalps (pincers) for grasping their prey. Identifying characteristics for C exilicauda and C sculpturatus include a small, slender, yellow to light brown or tan body typically measuring 1.3 to 7.6 cm in length with a subaculear tooth or tubercle at the base of the stinger, a characteristic that is common to all Centruroides species (Figure).2 Some variability in size has been shown, with smaller scorpions found in increased elevations and cooler temperatures.1,3 Both C exilicauda and C sculpturatus are found in northern Mexico as well as the southwestern United States (eg, Arizona, New Mexico, Texas, California, Nevada).1 They have a preference for residing in or around trees and often are found on the underside of bark, stones, or tables as well as inside shoes or small cracks and crevices. Scorpions typically sting in self-defense, and stings commonly occur when humans attempt to move tables, put on shoes, or walk barefoot in scorpion-infested areas. Most stings occur from the end of spring through the end summer, but many may go unreported.1,4
The venom of the Centruroides genus includes peptides and proteins that play a fundamental role in toxic activity by impairing potassium, sodium, and calcium ion channels.1,3 Toxins have been shown to be species specific, functioning either in capturing prey or deterring predators. Intraspecies variability in toxins has been demonstrated, which may complicate the production of adequate antivenin.3 Many have thought that C exilicauda Wood and C sculpturatus Ewing are the same species, and the names have been used synonymously in the past; however, genetic and biochemical studies of their venom components have shown that they are distinct species and that C sculpturatus is the more dangerous of the two.5 The median lethal dose 50% of C sculpturatus was found to be 22.7 μg in CD1 mice.6
Envenomation and Clinical Manifestations
Stings from C exilicauda and C sculpturatus have been shown to cause fatality in children more often than in adults.7 In the United States, Arizona has the highest frequency of serious symptoms of envenomation as well as the highest hospital and intensive care unit admission rates.6 Envenomation results in an immediate sharp burning pain followed by numbness.4 Wounds can produce some regional lymph node swelling, ecchymosis, paresthesia, and lymphangitis. More often than not, however, wounds have little to no inflammation and are characterized only by pain.4 The puncture wound is too small to be seen, and C exilicauda and C sculpturatus venom do not cause local tissue destruction, an important factor in distinguishing it from other scorpion envenomations.
More severe complications that may follow are caused by the neurotoxin released by Centruroides stings. The toxin components can increase the duration and amplitude of the neuronal action potential and enhance the release of neurotransmitters such as acetylcholine and norepinephrine.8 Stings can lead to cranial nerve dysfunction and somatic skeletal neuromuscular dysfunction as well as autonomic dysfunction, specifically salivation, fever, tongue and muscle fasciculations, opsoclonus, vomiting, bronchoconstriction, diaphoresis, nystagmus, blurred vision, slurred speech, hypertension, rhabdomyolysis, stridor, wheezing, aspiration, anaphylaxis, and tachycardia, leading to cardiac and respiratory compromise.4,8 Some patients have experienced a decreased sense of smell or hearing and decreased fine motor movements.7 Although pancreatitis may occur with scorpion stings, it is not common for C exilicauda.9 Comorbidities such as cardiac disease and substance use disorders contribute to prolonged length of hospital stay and poor outcome.8
Treatment
Most Centruroides stings can be managed at home, but patients with more serious symptoms and children younger than 2 years should be taken to a hospital for treatment.7 If a patient reports only pain but shows no other signs of neurotoxicity, observation and pain relief with rest, ice, and elevation is appropriate management. Patients with severe manifestations have been treated with various combinations of lorazepam, glycopyrrolate, ipratropium bromide, and ondansetron, but the only treatment definitively shown to decrease time to symptom abatement is antivenin.7 It has been demonstrated that C exilicauda and C sculpturatus antivenin is relatively safe.7 Most patients, especially adults, do not die from C exilicauda and C sculpturatus stings; therefore, antivenin more commonly is symptom abating than it is lifesaving.10 In children, time to symptom resolution was decreased to fewer than 4 hours with antivenin, and there is a lower rate of inpatient admission when antivenin is administered.4,10,11 There is a low incidence of anaphylactic reaction after antivenin, but there have been reported cases of self-limited serum sickness after antivenin use that generally can be managed with antihistamines and corticosteroids.4,7
- Gonzalez-Santillan E, Possani LD. North American scorpion species of public health importance with reappraisal of historical epidemiology. Acta Tropica. 2018;187:264-274.
- Goldsmith LA, Katz SI, Gilchrest BA, et al, eds. Fitzpatrick’s Dermatology in General Medicine. 8th ed. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill; 2012.
- Carcamo-Noriega EN, Olamendi-Portugal T, Restano-Cassulini R, et al. Intraspecific variation of Centruroides sculpturatus scorpion venom from two regions of Arizona. Arch Biochem Biophys. 2018;638:52-57.
- Kang AM, Brooks DE. Nationwide scorpion exposures reported to US Poison Control centers from 2005 to 2015. J Med Toxicol. 2017;13:158-165.
- Valdez-Cruz N, Dávila S, Licea A, et al. Biochemical, genetic and physiological characterization of venom components from two species of scorpions: Centruroides exilicauda Wood and Centruroides sculpturatus Ewing. Biochimie. 2004;86:387-396.
- Jiménez-Vargas JM, Quintero-Hernández V, Gonzáles-Morales L, et al. Design and expression of recombinant toxins from Mexican scorpions of the genus Centruroides for production of antivenoms. Toxicon. 2017;128:5-14.
- Hurst NB, Lipe DN, Karpen SR, et al. Centruroides sculpturatus envenomation in three adult patients requiring treatment with antivenom. Clin Toxicol (Phila). 2018;56:294-296.
- O’Connor A, Padilla-Jones A, Ruha A. Severe bark scorpion envenomation in adults. Clin Toxicol. 2018;56:170-174.
- Berg R, Tarantino M. Envenomation by the scorpion Centruroides exilicauda (C sculpturatus): severe and unusual manifestations. Pediatrics. 1991;87:930-933.
- LoVecchio F, McBride C. Scorpion envenomations in young children in central Arizona. J Toxicol Clin Toxicol. 2003;41:937-940.
- Rodrigo C, Gnanathasan A. Management of scorpion envenoming: a systematic review and meta-analysis of controlled clinical trials. Syst Rev. 2017;6:74.
- Gonzalez-Santillan E, Possani LD. North American scorpion species of public health importance with reappraisal of historical epidemiology. Acta Tropica. 2018;187:264-274.
- Goldsmith LA, Katz SI, Gilchrest BA, et al, eds. Fitzpatrick’s Dermatology in General Medicine. 8th ed. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill; 2012.
- Carcamo-Noriega EN, Olamendi-Portugal T, Restano-Cassulini R, et al. Intraspecific variation of Centruroides sculpturatus scorpion venom from two regions of Arizona. Arch Biochem Biophys. 2018;638:52-57.
- Kang AM, Brooks DE. Nationwide scorpion exposures reported to US Poison Control centers from 2005 to 2015. J Med Toxicol. 2017;13:158-165.
- Valdez-Cruz N, Dávila S, Licea A, et al. Biochemical, genetic and physiological characterization of venom components from two species of scorpions: Centruroides exilicauda Wood and Centruroides sculpturatus Ewing. Biochimie. 2004;86:387-396.
- Jiménez-Vargas JM, Quintero-Hernández V, Gonzáles-Morales L, et al. Design and expression of recombinant toxins from Mexican scorpions of the genus Centruroides for production of antivenoms. Toxicon. 2017;128:5-14.
- Hurst NB, Lipe DN, Karpen SR, et al. Centruroides sculpturatus envenomation in three adult patients requiring treatment with antivenom. Clin Toxicol (Phila). 2018;56:294-296.
- O’Connor A, Padilla-Jones A, Ruha A. Severe bark scorpion envenomation in adults. Clin Toxicol. 2018;56:170-174.
- Berg R, Tarantino M. Envenomation by the scorpion Centruroides exilicauda (C sculpturatus): severe and unusual manifestations. Pediatrics. 1991;87:930-933.
- LoVecchio F, McBride C. Scorpion envenomations in young children in central Arizona. J Toxicol Clin Toxicol. 2003;41:937-940.
- Rodrigo C, Gnanathasan A. Management of scorpion envenoming: a systematic review and meta-analysis of controlled clinical trials. Syst Rev. 2017;6:74.
Practice Points
- Centruroides scorpions can inflict painful stings.
- Children are at greatest risk for systemic toxicity.
