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Autonomy Versus Safety in Cognitive Impairment Decision-Making
DUBLIN – As healthcare systems across Europe deal with an increasing prevalence of cognitive impairment, family doctors are emerging as key players in assessing and supporting patients’ decision-making capacities.
This was a central theme at the 29th WONCA Europe Conference, where the European Young Family Doctors Movement (EYFDM) presented insights from a project conducted across Europe, involving young general practitioners who participated in workshops held in multiple countries.
“Family doctors are the linchpin in these decisions,” said Alina Zidaru, MD, from the Irish College of Physicians, Dublin. “They understand the patient’s history, build long-term relationships, and are best positioned to ensure that decisions reflect the patient’s values, not just what the law or the family might say.”
Dr. Zidaru and her colleague, Nick Mamo, MD, member of EYFDM in Glasgow, Scotland, emphasized the central role family doctors play in ensuring that patient rights and preferences are respected, regardless of their cognitive state. They are often the first to identify cognitive impairments and must carefully navigate the legal and ethical landscape of decision-making support.
“Often, we focus too much on avoiding harm and overlook the principle of autonomy,” said Dr. Mamo. “But it’s essential to give patients the right to make their own decisions, even when those decisions might seem unwise to us.”
The Case of Jay
Dr. Zidaru said: “We’ve conducted workshops in Brussels, Vienna, and Sydney, focusing on how to build habits that support patients. We presented real-life cases, like Jay, a 43-year-old man with trisomy and a moderate intellectual disability who must decide whether to undergo surgery for a hernia. The most significant challenge was ensuring continuity of care and respecting his autonomy, despite cognitive limitations.”
Jay’s case illustrates the complex ethical dilemmas faced by family doctors when balancing autonomy with patient safety. In many cases, cognitive impairments raise concerns about whether a patient can make decisions independently.
During the session, the audience was asked to share their thoughts on the case and to indicate whether they would allow Jay to make his own decision, and if they felt confident in assessing his cognitive capacity. The responses revealed a range of mixed feelings.
Legal and Cultural Variations Across Europe
The session also explored how different European countries approach decision-making for cognitively impaired individuals. A clear divide exists between nations that give family members automatic decision-making rights and those that require legal appointments.
In the United Kingdom, the Mental Capacity Act 2005 presumes capacity unless proven otherwise. Family doctors can assess patients’ decision-making abilities using any validated tool they find suitable. They should also aim to ensure that decisions are made in the patient’s best interests if they lack capacity. Family members only have legal authority if appointed through formal means, such as a lasting power of attorney.
In Spain and Italy, functional assessments are performed when patients retain decision-making authority in areas where they demonstrate competence. Legal guardianship can be appointed by the courts, sometimes limited to specific areas, but it is intended to support rather than replace the patient’s autonomy.
In France and Portugal, guardianship may be implemented in specific domains, but the patient’s ability to participate in decisions is always prioritized.
In Turkey, according to Turkish general practitioners in the audience, the courts and close family members often share the decision-making responsibility.
Dr. Zidaru added that Ireland’s Assisted Decision-Making (Capacity) Act 2015 introduced significant changes to how cognitive impairment is managed there. “Ireland adopted a standardized functional test of capacity, used by any doctor. A person can still make decisions as long as they understand, retain, and weigh the information needed to make that choice. If their capacity diminishes, a decision-making assistant, co–decision-maker, or representative can be appointed, but the patient’s will and preferences always come first.”
Family Doctors, a Growing Responsibility
“It’s not just about the legal framework: it’s about cultural awareness and early communication,” added Dr. Mamo. “We have to ask ourselves: Do patients have the right to make bad decisions? And how do we, as family doctors, respect that while still ensuring their safety?”
The session concluded with a discussion on how the role of family doctors in decision-making for cognitively impaired patients will evolve as populations age and the incidence of conditions like dementia increases. The workload is rising, and the need for clear, consistent guidelines is critical.
“Family doctors will continue to play a central role in managing these challenges,” Dr. Zidaru emphasized. “But we need more resources, more education, and more support to ensure we can respect patient autonomy without compromising their well-being.”
A version of this article first appeared on Medscape.com.
DUBLIN – As healthcare systems across Europe deal with an increasing prevalence of cognitive impairment, family doctors are emerging as key players in assessing and supporting patients’ decision-making capacities.
This was a central theme at the 29th WONCA Europe Conference, where the European Young Family Doctors Movement (EYFDM) presented insights from a project conducted across Europe, involving young general practitioners who participated in workshops held in multiple countries.
“Family doctors are the linchpin in these decisions,” said Alina Zidaru, MD, from the Irish College of Physicians, Dublin. “They understand the patient’s history, build long-term relationships, and are best positioned to ensure that decisions reflect the patient’s values, not just what the law or the family might say.”
Dr. Zidaru and her colleague, Nick Mamo, MD, member of EYFDM in Glasgow, Scotland, emphasized the central role family doctors play in ensuring that patient rights and preferences are respected, regardless of their cognitive state. They are often the first to identify cognitive impairments and must carefully navigate the legal and ethical landscape of decision-making support.
“Often, we focus too much on avoiding harm and overlook the principle of autonomy,” said Dr. Mamo. “But it’s essential to give patients the right to make their own decisions, even when those decisions might seem unwise to us.”
The Case of Jay
Dr. Zidaru said: “We’ve conducted workshops in Brussels, Vienna, and Sydney, focusing on how to build habits that support patients. We presented real-life cases, like Jay, a 43-year-old man with trisomy and a moderate intellectual disability who must decide whether to undergo surgery for a hernia. The most significant challenge was ensuring continuity of care and respecting his autonomy, despite cognitive limitations.”
Jay’s case illustrates the complex ethical dilemmas faced by family doctors when balancing autonomy with patient safety. In many cases, cognitive impairments raise concerns about whether a patient can make decisions independently.
During the session, the audience was asked to share their thoughts on the case and to indicate whether they would allow Jay to make his own decision, and if they felt confident in assessing his cognitive capacity. The responses revealed a range of mixed feelings.
Legal and Cultural Variations Across Europe
The session also explored how different European countries approach decision-making for cognitively impaired individuals. A clear divide exists between nations that give family members automatic decision-making rights and those that require legal appointments.
In the United Kingdom, the Mental Capacity Act 2005 presumes capacity unless proven otherwise. Family doctors can assess patients’ decision-making abilities using any validated tool they find suitable. They should also aim to ensure that decisions are made in the patient’s best interests if they lack capacity. Family members only have legal authority if appointed through formal means, such as a lasting power of attorney.
In Spain and Italy, functional assessments are performed when patients retain decision-making authority in areas where they demonstrate competence. Legal guardianship can be appointed by the courts, sometimes limited to specific areas, but it is intended to support rather than replace the patient’s autonomy.
In France and Portugal, guardianship may be implemented in specific domains, but the patient’s ability to participate in decisions is always prioritized.
In Turkey, according to Turkish general practitioners in the audience, the courts and close family members often share the decision-making responsibility.
Dr. Zidaru added that Ireland’s Assisted Decision-Making (Capacity) Act 2015 introduced significant changes to how cognitive impairment is managed there. “Ireland adopted a standardized functional test of capacity, used by any doctor. A person can still make decisions as long as they understand, retain, and weigh the information needed to make that choice. If their capacity diminishes, a decision-making assistant, co–decision-maker, or representative can be appointed, but the patient’s will and preferences always come first.”
Family Doctors, a Growing Responsibility
“It’s not just about the legal framework: it’s about cultural awareness and early communication,” added Dr. Mamo. “We have to ask ourselves: Do patients have the right to make bad decisions? And how do we, as family doctors, respect that while still ensuring their safety?”
The session concluded with a discussion on how the role of family doctors in decision-making for cognitively impaired patients will evolve as populations age and the incidence of conditions like dementia increases. The workload is rising, and the need for clear, consistent guidelines is critical.
“Family doctors will continue to play a central role in managing these challenges,” Dr. Zidaru emphasized. “But we need more resources, more education, and more support to ensure we can respect patient autonomy without compromising their well-being.”
A version of this article first appeared on Medscape.com.
DUBLIN – As healthcare systems across Europe deal with an increasing prevalence of cognitive impairment, family doctors are emerging as key players in assessing and supporting patients’ decision-making capacities.
This was a central theme at the 29th WONCA Europe Conference, where the European Young Family Doctors Movement (EYFDM) presented insights from a project conducted across Europe, involving young general practitioners who participated in workshops held in multiple countries.
“Family doctors are the linchpin in these decisions,” said Alina Zidaru, MD, from the Irish College of Physicians, Dublin. “They understand the patient’s history, build long-term relationships, and are best positioned to ensure that decisions reflect the patient’s values, not just what the law or the family might say.”
Dr. Zidaru and her colleague, Nick Mamo, MD, member of EYFDM in Glasgow, Scotland, emphasized the central role family doctors play in ensuring that patient rights and preferences are respected, regardless of their cognitive state. They are often the first to identify cognitive impairments and must carefully navigate the legal and ethical landscape of decision-making support.
“Often, we focus too much on avoiding harm and overlook the principle of autonomy,” said Dr. Mamo. “But it’s essential to give patients the right to make their own decisions, even when those decisions might seem unwise to us.”
The Case of Jay
Dr. Zidaru said: “We’ve conducted workshops in Brussels, Vienna, and Sydney, focusing on how to build habits that support patients. We presented real-life cases, like Jay, a 43-year-old man with trisomy and a moderate intellectual disability who must decide whether to undergo surgery for a hernia. The most significant challenge was ensuring continuity of care and respecting his autonomy, despite cognitive limitations.”
Jay’s case illustrates the complex ethical dilemmas faced by family doctors when balancing autonomy with patient safety. In many cases, cognitive impairments raise concerns about whether a patient can make decisions independently.
During the session, the audience was asked to share their thoughts on the case and to indicate whether they would allow Jay to make his own decision, and if they felt confident in assessing his cognitive capacity. The responses revealed a range of mixed feelings.
Legal and Cultural Variations Across Europe
The session also explored how different European countries approach decision-making for cognitively impaired individuals. A clear divide exists between nations that give family members automatic decision-making rights and those that require legal appointments.
In the United Kingdom, the Mental Capacity Act 2005 presumes capacity unless proven otherwise. Family doctors can assess patients’ decision-making abilities using any validated tool they find suitable. They should also aim to ensure that decisions are made in the patient’s best interests if they lack capacity. Family members only have legal authority if appointed through formal means, such as a lasting power of attorney.
In Spain and Italy, functional assessments are performed when patients retain decision-making authority in areas where they demonstrate competence. Legal guardianship can be appointed by the courts, sometimes limited to specific areas, but it is intended to support rather than replace the patient’s autonomy.
In France and Portugal, guardianship may be implemented in specific domains, but the patient’s ability to participate in decisions is always prioritized.
In Turkey, according to Turkish general practitioners in the audience, the courts and close family members often share the decision-making responsibility.
Dr. Zidaru added that Ireland’s Assisted Decision-Making (Capacity) Act 2015 introduced significant changes to how cognitive impairment is managed there. “Ireland adopted a standardized functional test of capacity, used by any doctor. A person can still make decisions as long as they understand, retain, and weigh the information needed to make that choice. If their capacity diminishes, a decision-making assistant, co–decision-maker, or representative can be appointed, but the patient’s will and preferences always come first.”
Family Doctors, a Growing Responsibility
“It’s not just about the legal framework: it’s about cultural awareness and early communication,” added Dr. Mamo. “We have to ask ourselves: Do patients have the right to make bad decisions? And how do we, as family doctors, respect that while still ensuring their safety?”
The session concluded with a discussion on how the role of family doctors in decision-making for cognitively impaired patients will evolve as populations age and the incidence of conditions like dementia increases. The workload is rising, and the need for clear, consistent guidelines is critical.
“Family doctors will continue to play a central role in managing these challenges,” Dr. Zidaru emphasized. “But we need more resources, more education, and more support to ensure we can respect patient autonomy without compromising their well-being.”
A version of this article first appeared on Medscape.com.
FROM WONCA EUROPEAN CONFERENCE 2024
Sex and Gender Influence Outcomes in Colorectal Cancer
BARCELONA, SPAIN — , according to experts speaking here at the European Society for Medical Oncology (ESMO) Annual Meeting 2024.
“The concepts of gender and sex are not at all new in oncology, but what is needed is a renewed focus on them and the prospective collection of data in this regard,” said Kathrin Heinrich, MD, of University Hospital LMU Munich, Germany.
Sex and Gender: What’s New?
Speaking at the conference, Dr. Heinrich cited a 2020 study published in The Lancet that stated, “Sex and gender are the foundation of precision medicine, and their differences should guide decision-making processes to promote gender equity.”
Sex differences have clear biological and pathophysiological consequences in oncology. Available data show differences between men and women in terms of gene expression, epigenetics, metabolomics, tumor microenvironment, immune system, and microbiome. These are all critical for understanding tumor biology and identifying new treatments.
Colorectal cancer provides an excellent example of how sex differences can influence treatment outcomes.
From an incidence perspective, the numbers reported by the large epidemiological GLOBOCAN study are quite similar between the two sexes, with men accounting for 56% of patients and women for 44%.
However, there are noticeable differences in tumor characteristics, with women more frequently presenting with right-sided colon tumors and BRAF mutations; both features associated with a worse prognosis.
Sex also affects body composition, influencing the percentage of metabolically active body mass, which can alter the effectiveness and distribution of a drug and the necessary dose to achieve the desired effect.
“Despite this evidence, clinical practice often overlooks differences between the sexes when planning therapies,” Dr. Heinrich said, also recalling how in many cases the side effects of treatments — from chemotherapy to immunotherapy — differ in intensity and type between men and women.
Toward a More Targeted and Inclusive Approach
Sex is a well-defined concept from a biological standpoint and, consequently, the differences between the sexes are easy to identify. Analyzing gender differences is much more complex.
“It is not enough to tick the male or female box on a questionnaire. It is necessary to consider more complex aspects to measure, such as identity, role, and gender relations,” Dr. Heinrich said, also presenting a list of specific questionnaires to assess these components.
In today’s oncology, however, such questionnaires are mainly used to analyze secondary outcomes such as quality of life, while examples from other areas of medicine, particularly cardiology, show how questionnaires on gender can predict some clinical outcomes better than those on sex alone and that studies considering sex and gender are feasible.
Gender identity influences many aspects of health, such as attitudes toward prevention, the seeking of information and medical care, and risk behaviors. “The new approach to discussing sex and gender in oncology is to consider these factors in therapeutic decisions,” Dr. Heinrich said. “I hope that within a few years this will be fully achievable, thanks to the inclusion in our studies of gender scores, ad hoc patient-reported outcomes, and information related, for example, to menopausal status or the number of pregnancies,” she added.
To harness the differences between sex and gender in favor of the patient, however, it is also necessary to change the approach to clinical studies. Currently, data on these aspects are typically collected retrospectively. However, they should be integrated prospectively from the study’s beginning.
“We look at increasingly smaller subgroups of patients, at mutations affecting 1%-2% of our patients, but we do not collect data on sex or menopausal status, which are actually extremely simple to record,” Dr. Heinrich said, calling for more inclusive studies, especially involving the LGBTQI+ community, traditionally excluded from clinical trials and many services.
“Fortunately, we live in an era in which sensitivity towards this community is continuously increasing. We must gather information on this population, which fully belongs to what we scientifically define as the ‘real-world’ approach.”
Dr. Heinrich declared honoraria, consulting and advisory roles, and travel support from several companies, including Amgen, BMS, Merck, MSD, Roche-Janssen, Taiho, Servier, and Streamed Up.
This story was translated from Univadis Italy using several editorial tools, including AI, as part of the process. Human editors reviewed this content before publication. A version of this article appeared on Medscape.com.
BARCELONA, SPAIN — , according to experts speaking here at the European Society for Medical Oncology (ESMO) Annual Meeting 2024.
“The concepts of gender and sex are not at all new in oncology, but what is needed is a renewed focus on them and the prospective collection of data in this regard,” said Kathrin Heinrich, MD, of University Hospital LMU Munich, Germany.
Sex and Gender: What’s New?
Speaking at the conference, Dr. Heinrich cited a 2020 study published in The Lancet that stated, “Sex and gender are the foundation of precision medicine, and their differences should guide decision-making processes to promote gender equity.”
Sex differences have clear biological and pathophysiological consequences in oncology. Available data show differences between men and women in terms of gene expression, epigenetics, metabolomics, tumor microenvironment, immune system, and microbiome. These are all critical for understanding tumor biology and identifying new treatments.
Colorectal cancer provides an excellent example of how sex differences can influence treatment outcomes.
From an incidence perspective, the numbers reported by the large epidemiological GLOBOCAN study are quite similar between the two sexes, with men accounting for 56% of patients and women for 44%.
However, there are noticeable differences in tumor characteristics, with women more frequently presenting with right-sided colon tumors and BRAF mutations; both features associated with a worse prognosis.
Sex also affects body composition, influencing the percentage of metabolically active body mass, which can alter the effectiveness and distribution of a drug and the necessary dose to achieve the desired effect.
“Despite this evidence, clinical practice often overlooks differences between the sexes when planning therapies,” Dr. Heinrich said, also recalling how in many cases the side effects of treatments — from chemotherapy to immunotherapy — differ in intensity and type between men and women.
Toward a More Targeted and Inclusive Approach
Sex is a well-defined concept from a biological standpoint and, consequently, the differences between the sexes are easy to identify. Analyzing gender differences is much more complex.
“It is not enough to tick the male or female box on a questionnaire. It is necessary to consider more complex aspects to measure, such as identity, role, and gender relations,” Dr. Heinrich said, also presenting a list of specific questionnaires to assess these components.
In today’s oncology, however, such questionnaires are mainly used to analyze secondary outcomes such as quality of life, while examples from other areas of medicine, particularly cardiology, show how questionnaires on gender can predict some clinical outcomes better than those on sex alone and that studies considering sex and gender are feasible.
Gender identity influences many aspects of health, such as attitudes toward prevention, the seeking of information and medical care, and risk behaviors. “The new approach to discussing sex and gender in oncology is to consider these factors in therapeutic decisions,” Dr. Heinrich said. “I hope that within a few years this will be fully achievable, thanks to the inclusion in our studies of gender scores, ad hoc patient-reported outcomes, and information related, for example, to menopausal status or the number of pregnancies,” she added.
To harness the differences between sex and gender in favor of the patient, however, it is also necessary to change the approach to clinical studies. Currently, data on these aspects are typically collected retrospectively. However, they should be integrated prospectively from the study’s beginning.
“We look at increasingly smaller subgroups of patients, at mutations affecting 1%-2% of our patients, but we do not collect data on sex or menopausal status, which are actually extremely simple to record,” Dr. Heinrich said, calling for more inclusive studies, especially involving the LGBTQI+ community, traditionally excluded from clinical trials and many services.
“Fortunately, we live in an era in which sensitivity towards this community is continuously increasing. We must gather information on this population, which fully belongs to what we scientifically define as the ‘real-world’ approach.”
Dr. Heinrich declared honoraria, consulting and advisory roles, and travel support from several companies, including Amgen, BMS, Merck, MSD, Roche-Janssen, Taiho, Servier, and Streamed Up.
This story was translated from Univadis Italy using several editorial tools, including AI, as part of the process. Human editors reviewed this content before publication. A version of this article appeared on Medscape.com.
BARCELONA, SPAIN — , according to experts speaking here at the European Society for Medical Oncology (ESMO) Annual Meeting 2024.
“The concepts of gender and sex are not at all new in oncology, but what is needed is a renewed focus on them and the prospective collection of data in this regard,” said Kathrin Heinrich, MD, of University Hospital LMU Munich, Germany.
Sex and Gender: What’s New?
Speaking at the conference, Dr. Heinrich cited a 2020 study published in The Lancet that stated, “Sex and gender are the foundation of precision medicine, and their differences should guide decision-making processes to promote gender equity.”
Sex differences have clear biological and pathophysiological consequences in oncology. Available data show differences between men and women in terms of gene expression, epigenetics, metabolomics, tumor microenvironment, immune system, and microbiome. These are all critical for understanding tumor biology and identifying new treatments.
Colorectal cancer provides an excellent example of how sex differences can influence treatment outcomes.
From an incidence perspective, the numbers reported by the large epidemiological GLOBOCAN study are quite similar between the two sexes, with men accounting for 56% of patients and women for 44%.
However, there are noticeable differences in tumor characteristics, with women more frequently presenting with right-sided colon tumors and BRAF mutations; both features associated with a worse prognosis.
Sex also affects body composition, influencing the percentage of metabolically active body mass, which can alter the effectiveness and distribution of a drug and the necessary dose to achieve the desired effect.
“Despite this evidence, clinical practice often overlooks differences between the sexes when planning therapies,” Dr. Heinrich said, also recalling how in many cases the side effects of treatments — from chemotherapy to immunotherapy — differ in intensity and type between men and women.
Toward a More Targeted and Inclusive Approach
Sex is a well-defined concept from a biological standpoint and, consequently, the differences between the sexes are easy to identify. Analyzing gender differences is much more complex.
“It is not enough to tick the male or female box on a questionnaire. It is necessary to consider more complex aspects to measure, such as identity, role, and gender relations,” Dr. Heinrich said, also presenting a list of specific questionnaires to assess these components.
In today’s oncology, however, such questionnaires are mainly used to analyze secondary outcomes such as quality of life, while examples from other areas of medicine, particularly cardiology, show how questionnaires on gender can predict some clinical outcomes better than those on sex alone and that studies considering sex and gender are feasible.
Gender identity influences many aspects of health, such as attitudes toward prevention, the seeking of information and medical care, and risk behaviors. “The new approach to discussing sex and gender in oncology is to consider these factors in therapeutic decisions,” Dr. Heinrich said. “I hope that within a few years this will be fully achievable, thanks to the inclusion in our studies of gender scores, ad hoc patient-reported outcomes, and information related, for example, to menopausal status or the number of pregnancies,” she added.
To harness the differences between sex and gender in favor of the patient, however, it is also necessary to change the approach to clinical studies. Currently, data on these aspects are typically collected retrospectively. However, they should be integrated prospectively from the study’s beginning.
“We look at increasingly smaller subgroups of patients, at mutations affecting 1%-2% of our patients, but we do not collect data on sex or menopausal status, which are actually extremely simple to record,” Dr. Heinrich said, calling for more inclusive studies, especially involving the LGBTQI+ community, traditionally excluded from clinical trials and many services.
“Fortunately, we live in an era in which sensitivity towards this community is continuously increasing. We must gather information on this population, which fully belongs to what we scientifically define as the ‘real-world’ approach.”
Dr. Heinrich declared honoraria, consulting and advisory roles, and travel support from several companies, including Amgen, BMS, Merck, MSD, Roche-Janssen, Taiho, Servier, and Streamed Up.
This story was translated from Univadis Italy using several editorial tools, including AI, as part of the process. Human editors reviewed this content before publication. A version of this article appeared on Medscape.com.
FROM ESMO CONGRESS 2024
Levels of West Nile virus higher than normal in northern Italy
Climate change has affected the spread of West Nile fever. This observation was confirmed in an Italian Ministry of Health note reporting 94 confirmed cases of infection. Of those cases, 55 were neuroinvasive, 19 were from blood donors, 19 were associated with fever, and in one case, the patient was symptomatic. Seven deaths have occurred since the start of the summer season, particularly in northern Italy.
Entomologists and veterinarians have confirmed the presence of West Nile virus (WNV) in a pool of 100 mosquitoes, 15 birds from targeted species, and 10 wild birds from passive surveillance. Four cases have been reported in horses in which clinical symptoms were attributable to a WNV infection. No cases of infection with Usutu virus (USUV) have been registered in humans. USUV is a virus in the same family as WNV. It was first identified in South Africa in the 1950s and is capable of causing encephalitis. The viral genome has been detected in a pool of 33 mosquitoes and four birds.
Currently, the regions where the circulation of WNV has been confirmed are Emilia-Romagna, Veneto, Piedmont, Lombardy, Sardinia, and Friuli Venezia Giulia. To date, USUV has been detected in Le Marche, Lombardy, Umbria, Emilia Romagna, Friuli Venezia Giulia, Lazio, and Veneto.
Current climate conditions favor the reproduction of the vector (mosquitoes of the Culex genus) and the subsequent viral circulation among wildlife, the natural reservoir of the virus, and mammals (including humans). The 2022 epidemic season is peculiar in comparison with seasons from the past 3 years. Viral circulation has started early, and a greater number of cases have been observed in the avifauna and in the mosquito pool, and there has been an increase in the number of cases in humans.
For these reasons, and considering the significance of the infection for public health, it is necessary to put all useful measures in place to limit the risk of further transmission among humans and animals.
As specified on the Italian National Institute for Health website, West Nile fever is caused by the homonymous virus of the Flaviviridae family, which was isolated for the first time in Uganda in 1937. The virus has spread to almost all continents.
The virus reservoirs are wild birds and mosquitoes (more frequently of the Culex genus). Other means of transmission, although very rare, are organ transplants, blood transfusions, and transmission from mother to fetus. West Nile fever cannot be transmitted from person to person. The virus infects other mammals, especially horses, and in some cases, dogs and rabbits.
Incubation and symptoms
The incubation period from the time of being bitten by an infected mosquito ranges from 2 to 14 days but can be up to 21 days in immunocompromised patients.
Most infected people do not show any symptoms. In around 20% of symptomatic cases, patients present with mild symptoms: fever, headache, nausea, vomiting, enlarged lymph nodes, and skin rashes. These symptoms may only last a few hours, but in rare cases, they may last a few weeks. Symptoms vary significantly, depending on the patient’s age. In children, a mild fever is most common, whereas in young people, symptoms are characterized by a fairly high fever, redness of the eyes, headache, and muscle pains. In the elderly and in debilitated patients, symptoms can be more severe.
The most serious symptoms are seen in fewer than 1% of infected patients (1 in 150 people) and include a high fever, a severe headache, muscle weakness, disorientation, tremors, visual disturbances, listlessness, and seizures, leading to paralysis and coma. Some neurologic effects may be permanent. In the most severe cases (around 1 in 1,000), the virus can cause terminal encephalitis.
Diagnosis
Diagnosis is mostly made through laboratory testing for IgM antibodies on serum and, where indicated, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). Antibodies can persist beyond the patient’s period of illness (up to 1 year). Therefore, a positive result may indicate a previous infection. Samples collected within 8 days of the onset of symptoms may appear negative; it is therefore advisable to repeat the laboratory test further down the line before excluding the disease. Alternatively, diagnosis may be obtained through polymerase chain reaction or viral culture testing on samples of serum or CSF.
Prevention
A vaccine for West Nile fever does not exist. Prevention consists, above all, of reducing exposure to mosquito bites.
It is advisable that people protect themselves against bites and avoid places where mosquitoes can reproduce easily. The following are recommended:
- Using repellents and wearing of trousers and long-sleeve tops when out in the open, especially at dawn and sunset.
- Using mosquito nets on windows.
- Frequently emptying vases or other containers (for example, buckets) that contain stagnant water.
- Frequently changing the water in animal drinking bowls.
- Keeping child paddling pools in a vertical position when not in use.
- Using authorized repellents and insecticides where the vector may reproduce, such as in stables. For horses, a vaccine is available for veterinary use, which can further reduce the reservoir of viral circulation.
It is important that physicians inform patients in at-risk areas of the presence of this virus, the possible symptoms, and the preventive measures to adopt.
Therapy and treatment
There is no specific therapy for West Nile fever. In most cases, symptoms appear after a few days, but they can last for a few weeks. For the most severe cases, hospital admission is necessary; occasionally, treatment in the intensive care unit is necessary.
This article was translated from Univadis Italy. A version appeared on Medscape.com.
Climate change has affected the spread of West Nile fever. This observation was confirmed in an Italian Ministry of Health note reporting 94 confirmed cases of infection. Of those cases, 55 were neuroinvasive, 19 were from blood donors, 19 were associated with fever, and in one case, the patient was symptomatic. Seven deaths have occurred since the start of the summer season, particularly in northern Italy.
Entomologists and veterinarians have confirmed the presence of West Nile virus (WNV) in a pool of 100 mosquitoes, 15 birds from targeted species, and 10 wild birds from passive surveillance. Four cases have been reported in horses in which clinical symptoms were attributable to a WNV infection. No cases of infection with Usutu virus (USUV) have been registered in humans. USUV is a virus in the same family as WNV. It was first identified in South Africa in the 1950s and is capable of causing encephalitis. The viral genome has been detected in a pool of 33 mosquitoes and four birds.
Currently, the regions where the circulation of WNV has been confirmed are Emilia-Romagna, Veneto, Piedmont, Lombardy, Sardinia, and Friuli Venezia Giulia. To date, USUV has been detected in Le Marche, Lombardy, Umbria, Emilia Romagna, Friuli Venezia Giulia, Lazio, and Veneto.
Current climate conditions favor the reproduction of the vector (mosquitoes of the Culex genus) and the subsequent viral circulation among wildlife, the natural reservoir of the virus, and mammals (including humans). The 2022 epidemic season is peculiar in comparison with seasons from the past 3 years. Viral circulation has started early, and a greater number of cases have been observed in the avifauna and in the mosquito pool, and there has been an increase in the number of cases in humans.
For these reasons, and considering the significance of the infection for public health, it is necessary to put all useful measures in place to limit the risk of further transmission among humans and animals.
As specified on the Italian National Institute for Health website, West Nile fever is caused by the homonymous virus of the Flaviviridae family, which was isolated for the first time in Uganda in 1937. The virus has spread to almost all continents.
The virus reservoirs are wild birds and mosquitoes (more frequently of the Culex genus). Other means of transmission, although very rare, are organ transplants, blood transfusions, and transmission from mother to fetus. West Nile fever cannot be transmitted from person to person. The virus infects other mammals, especially horses, and in some cases, dogs and rabbits.
Incubation and symptoms
The incubation period from the time of being bitten by an infected mosquito ranges from 2 to 14 days but can be up to 21 days in immunocompromised patients.
Most infected people do not show any symptoms. In around 20% of symptomatic cases, patients present with mild symptoms: fever, headache, nausea, vomiting, enlarged lymph nodes, and skin rashes. These symptoms may only last a few hours, but in rare cases, they may last a few weeks. Symptoms vary significantly, depending on the patient’s age. In children, a mild fever is most common, whereas in young people, symptoms are characterized by a fairly high fever, redness of the eyes, headache, and muscle pains. In the elderly and in debilitated patients, symptoms can be more severe.
The most serious symptoms are seen in fewer than 1% of infected patients (1 in 150 people) and include a high fever, a severe headache, muscle weakness, disorientation, tremors, visual disturbances, listlessness, and seizures, leading to paralysis and coma. Some neurologic effects may be permanent. In the most severe cases (around 1 in 1,000), the virus can cause terminal encephalitis.
Diagnosis
Diagnosis is mostly made through laboratory testing for IgM antibodies on serum and, where indicated, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). Antibodies can persist beyond the patient’s period of illness (up to 1 year). Therefore, a positive result may indicate a previous infection. Samples collected within 8 days of the onset of symptoms may appear negative; it is therefore advisable to repeat the laboratory test further down the line before excluding the disease. Alternatively, diagnosis may be obtained through polymerase chain reaction or viral culture testing on samples of serum or CSF.
Prevention
A vaccine for West Nile fever does not exist. Prevention consists, above all, of reducing exposure to mosquito bites.
It is advisable that people protect themselves against bites and avoid places where mosquitoes can reproduce easily. The following are recommended:
- Using repellents and wearing of trousers and long-sleeve tops when out in the open, especially at dawn and sunset.
- Using mosquito nets on windows.
- Frequently emptying vases or other containers (for example, buckets) that contain stagnant water.
- Frequently changing the water in animal drinking bowls.
- Keeping child paddling pools in a vertical position when not in use.
- Using authorized repellents and insecticides where the vector may reproduce, such as in stables. For horses, a vaccine is available for veterinary use, which can further reduce the reservoir of viral circulation.
It is important that physicians inform patients in at-risk areas of the presence of this virus, the possible symptoms, and the preventive measures to adopt.
Therapy and treatment
There is no specific therapy for West Nile fever. In most cases, symptoms appear after a few days, but they can last for a few weeks. For the most severe cases, hospital admission is necessary; occasionally, treatment in the intensive care unit is necessary.
This article was translated from Univadis Italy. A version appeared on Medscape.com.
Climate change has affected the spread of West Nile fever. This observation was confirmed in an Italian Ministry of Health note reporting 94 confirmed cases of infection. Of those cases, 55 were neuroinvasive, 19 were from blood donors, 19 were associated with fever, and in one case, the patient was symptomatic. Seven deaths have occurred since the start of the summer season, particularly in northern Italy.
Entomologists and veterinarians have confirmed the presence of West Nile virus (WNV) in a pool of 100 mosquitoes, 15 birds from targeted species, and 10 wild birds from passive surveillance. Four cases have been reported in horses in which clinical symptoms were attributable to a WNV infection. No cases of infection with Usutu virus (USUV) have been registered in humans. USUV is a virus in the same family as WNV. It was first identified in South Africa in the 1950s and is capable of causing encephalitis. The viral genome has been detected in a pool of 33 mosquitoes and four birds.
Currently, the regions where the circulation of WNV has been confirmed are Emilia-Romagna, Veneto, Piedmont, Lombardy, Sardinia, and Friuli Venezia Giulia. To date, USUV has been detected in Le Marche, Lombardy, Umbria, Emilia Romagna, Friuli Venezia Giulia, Lazio, and Veneto.
Current climate conditions favor the reproduction of the vector (mosquitoes of the Culex genus) and the subsequent viral circulation among wildlife, the natural reservoir of the virus, and mammals (including humans). The 2022 epidemic season is peculiar in comparison with seasons from the past 3 years. Viral circulation has started early, and a greater number of cases have been observed in the avifauna and in the mosquito pool, and there has been an increase in the number of cases in humans.
For these reasons, and considering the significance of the infection for public health, it is necessary to put all useful measures in place to limit the risk of further transmission among humans and animals.
As specified on the Italian National Institute for Health website, West Nile fever is caused by the homonymous virus of the Flaviviridae family, which was isolated for the first time in Uganda in 1937. The virus has spread to almost all continents.
The virus reservoirs are wild birds and mosquitoes (more frequently of the Culex genus). Other means of transmission, although very rare, are organ transplants, blood transfusions, and transmission from mother to fetus. West Nile fever cannot be transmitted from person to person. The virus infects other mammals, especially horses, and in some cases, dogs and rabbits.
Incubation and symptoms
The incubation period from the time of being bitten by an infected mosquito ranges from 2 to 14 days but can be up to 21 days in immunocompromised patients.
Most infected people do not show any symptoms. In around 20% of symptomatic cases, patients present with mild symptoms: fever, headache, nausea, vomiting, enlarged lymph nodes, and skin rashes. These symptoms may only last a few hours, but in rare cases, they may last a few weeks. Symptoms vary significantly, depending on the patient’s age. In children, a mild fever is most common, whereas in young people, symptoms are characterized by a fairly high fever, redness of the eyes, headache, and muscle pains. In the elderly and in debilitated patients, symptoms can be more severe.
The most serious symptoms are seen in fewer than 1% of infected patients (1 in 150 people) and include a high fever, a severe headache, muscle weakness, disorientation, tremors, visual disturbances, listlessness, and seizures, leading to paralysis and coma. Some neurologic effects may be permanent. In the most severe cases (around 1 in 1,000), the virus can cause terminal encephalitis.
Diagnosis
Diagnosis is mostly made through laboratory testing for IgM antibodies on serum and, where indicated, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). Antibodies can persist beyond the patient’s period of illness (up to 1 year). Therefore, a positive result may indicate a previous infection. Samples collected within 8 days of the onset of symptoms may appear negative; it is therefore advisable to repeat the laboratory test further down the line before excluding the disease. Alternatively, diagnosis may be obtained through polymerase chain reaction or viral culture testing on samples of serum or CSF.
Prevention
A vaccine for West Nile fever does not exist. Prevention consists, above all, of reducing exposure to mosquito bites.
It is advisable that people protect themselves against bites and avoid places where mosquitoes can reproduce easily. The following are recommended:
- Using repellents and wearing of trousers and long-sleeve tops when out in the open, especially at dawn and sunset.
- Using mosquito nets on windows.
- Frequently emptying vases or other containers (for example, buckets) that contain stagnant water.
- Frequently changing the water in animal drinking bowls.
- Keeping child paddling pools in a vertical position when not in use.
- Using authorized repellents and insecticides where the vector may reproduce, such as in stables. For horses, a vaccine is available for veterinary use, which can further reduce the reservoir of viral circulation.
It is important that physicians inform patients in at-risk areas of the presence of this virus, the possible symptoms, and the preventive measures to adopt.
Therapy and treatment
There is no specific therapy for West Nile fever. In most cases, symptoms appear after a few days, but they can last for a few weeks. For the most severe cases, hospital admission is necessary; occasionally, treatment in the intensive care unit is necessary.
This article was translated from Univadis Italy. A version appeared on Medscape.com.
ECDC gives guidance on prevention and treatment of monkeypox
In a new risk-assessment document, the European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control summarizes what we currently know about monkeypox and recommends that European countries focus on the identification and management of the disease as well as contract tracing and prompt reporting of new cases of the virus.
Recent developments
From May 15 to May 23, in eight European Union member states (Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, Portugal, Spain, and Sweden) a total of 85 cases of monkeypox were reported; they were acquired through autochthonous transmission. Current diagnosed cases of monkeypox have mainly been recorded in men who have sexual relations with other men, suggesting that transmission may occur during sexual intercourse, through infectious material coming into contact with mucosa or damaged skin, or via large respiratory droplets during prolonged face-to-face contact.
Andrea Ammon, MD, director of the ECDC, stated that “most current cases have presented with mild symptoms of the disease, and for the general population, the chance of diffusion is very low. However, the likelihood of a further spread of the virus through close contact, for example during sexual activities among people with multiple sexual partners, is considerably increased.”
Stella Kyriakides, European commissioner for health and food safety, added, “I am worried about the increase of cases of monkeypox in the EU and worldwide. We are currently monitoring the situation and, although, at the moment, the probability of it spreading to the general population is low, the situation is evolving. We should all remain alert, making sure that contact tracing and a sufficient diagnostic capacity are in place and guarantee that vaccines and antiviral drugs are available, as well as sufficient personal protective equipment [PPE] for health care professionals.”
Routes of transmission
Monkeypox is not easily spread among people. Person-to-person transmission occurs through close contact with infectious material, coming from skin lesions of an infected person, through air droplets in the case of prolonged face-to-face contact, and through fomites. So far, diagnosed cases suggest that transmission can occur through sexual intercourse.
The incubation period is 5-21 days, and patients are symptomatic for 2-4 weeks.
According to the ECDC, the likelihood of this infection spreading is increased among people who have more than one sexual partner. Although most current cases present with mild symptoms, monkeypox can cause severe disease in some groups (such as young children, pregnant women, and immunosuppressed people). However, the probability of severe disease cannot yet be estimated precisely.
The overall risk is considered moderate for people who have multiple sexual partners and low for the general population.
Clinical course
The disease initially presents with fever, myalgia, fatigue, and headache. Within 3 days of the onset of the prodromal symptoms, a centrifugal maculopapular rash appears on the site of primary infection and rapidly spreads to other parts of the body. The palms of the hands and bottoms of the feet are involved in cases where the rash has spread, which is a characteristic of the disease. Usually within 12 days, the lesions progress, simultaneously changing from macules to papules, blisters, pustules, and scabs before falling off. The lesions may have a central depression and be extremely itchy.
If the patient scratches them, a secondary bacterial infection may take hold (for which treatment with oral antihistamines is indicated). Lesions may also be present in the oral or ocular mucous membrane. Either before or at the same time as onset of the rash, patients may experience swelling of the lymph nodes, which usually is not seen with smallpox or chickenpox.
The onset of the rash is considered the start of the infectious period; however, people with prodromal symptoms may also transmit the virus.
Most cases in people present with mild or moderate symptoms. Complications seen in endemic countries include encephalitis, secondary bacterial skin infections, dehydration, conjunctivitis, keratitis, and pneumonia. The death rate ranges from 0% to 11% in endemic areas, with fatalities from the disease mostly occurring in younger children.
There is not a lot of information available on the disease in immunosuppressed individuals. In the 2017 Nigerian epidemic, patients with a concomitant HIV infection presented with more severe disease, with a greater number of skin lesions and genital ulcers, compared with HIV-negative individuals. No deaths were reported among seropositive patients. The main sequelae from the disease are usually disfiguring scars and permanent corneal lesions.
Treatment
No smallpox vaccines are authorized for use against monkeypox, however the third-generation smallpox vaccine Imvanex (Modified Vaccinia Ankara) has been authorized by the European Medicines Agency (EMA) for the EU market against smallpox and has demonstrated to provide protection in primates.
Old-generation smallpox vaccines have significant side effects, are no longer authorized, and should no longer be used. It is also important to note the lack of safety data for the use of Imvanex in immunocompromised people.
For this reason, National Immunization Technical Advisory Groups have been asked to develop specific guidelines for vaccination in close contacts of patients with monkeypox. The use of a smallpox vaccine for preexposure prophylaxis cannot be considered now, when taking into account the risk-benefit ratio.
In regard to treatment, tecovirimat is the only antiviral drug with an EMA-authorized indication for orthopoxvirus infection.
Brincidofovir is not authorized in the EU but has been authorized by the US Food and Drug Administration. However, availability on the European market is limited somewhat by the number of doses.
According to the ECDC, health care authorities should provide information about which groups should have priority access to treatment.
The use of antivirals for postexposure prophylaxis should be investigated further. Cidofovir is active in vitro for smallpox but has a pronounced nephrotoxicity profile that makes it unsuitable for first-line treatment.
The ECDC document also proposes an interim case definition for epidemiologic reporting. Further indications will also be provided for the management of monkeypox cases and close contacts. Those infected should remain in isolation until the scabs have fallen off and should, above all, avoid close contact with at-risk or immunosuppressed people as well as pets.
Most infected people can remain at home with supportive care.
Prevention
Close contacts for cases of monkeypox should monitor the development of their symptoms until 21 days have passed from their most recent exposure to the virus.
Health care workers should wear appropriate PPE (gloves, water-resistant gowns, FFP2 masks) during screening for suspected cases or when working with confirmed cases. Laboratory staff should also take precautions to avoid exposure in the workplace.
Close contacts of an infected person should not donate blood, organs, or bone marrow for at least 21 days from the last day of exposure.
Finally, the ECDC recommends increasing proactive communication of the risks to increase awareness and provide updates and indications to individuals who are at a greater risk, as well as to the general public. These messages should highlight that monkeypox is spread through close person-to-person contact, especially within the family unit, and also potentially through sexual intercourse. A balance, however, should be maintained between informing the individuals who are at greater risk and communicating that the virus is not easily spread and that the risk for the general population is low.
Human-to-animal transmission
A potential risk for human-to-animal transmission exists in Europe; therefore, a close collaboration is required between human and veterinary health care authorities, working together to manage domestic animals exposed to the virus and to prevent transmission of the disease to wildlife. To date, the European Food Safety Authority is not aware of any reports of animal infections (domestic or wild) within the EU.
There are still many unknown factors about this outbreak. The ECDC continues to closely monitor any developments and will update the risk assessment as soon as new data and information become available.
If human-to-animal transmission occurs and the virus spreads among animal populations, there is a risk that the disease could become an endemic in Europe. Therefore, human and veterinary health care authorities should work together closely to manage cases of domestic animals exposed to the virus and prevent transmission of the disease to wildlife.
A version of this article appeared on Medscape.com. This article was translated from Univadis Italy.
In a new risk-assessment document, the European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control summarizes what we currently know about monkeypox and recommends that European countries focus on the identification and management of the disease as well as contract tracing and prompt reporting of new cases of the virus.
Recent developments
From May 15 to May 23, in eight European Union member states (Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, Portugal, Spain, and Sweden) a total of 85 cases of monkeypox were reported; they were acquired through autochthonous transmission. Current diagnosed cases of monkeypox have mainly been recorded in men who have sexual relations with other men, suggesting that transmission may occur during sexual intercourse, through infectious material coming into contact with mucosa or damaged skin, or via large respiratory droplets during prolonged face-to-face contact.
Andrea Ammon, MD, director of the ECDC, stated that “most current cases have presented with mild symptoms of the disease, and for the general population, the chance of diffusion is very low. However, the likelihood of a further spread of the virus through close contact, for example during sexual activities among people with multiple sexual partners, is considerably increased.”
Stella Kyriakides, European commissioner for health and food safety, added, “I am worried about the increase of cases of monkeypox in the EU and worldwide. We are currently monitoring the situation and, although, at the moment, the probability of it spreading to the general population is low, the situation is evolving. We should all remain alert, making sure that contact tracing and a sufficient diagnostic capacity are in place and guarantee that vaccines and antiviral drugs are available, as well as sufficient personal protective equipment [PPE] for health care professionals.”
Routes of transmission
Monkeypox is not easily spread among people. Person-to-person transmission occurs through close contact with infectious material, coming from skin lesions of an infected person, through air droplets in the case of prolonged face-to-face contact, and through fomites. So far, diagnosed cases suggest that transmission can occur through sexual intercourse.
The incubation period is 5-21 days, and patients are symptomatic for 2-4 weeks.
According to the ECDC, the likelihood of this infection spreading is increased among people who have more than one sexual partner. Although most current cases present with mild symptoms, monkeypox can cause severe disease in some groups (such as young children, pregnant women, and immunosuppressed people). However, the probability of severe disease cannot yet be estimated precisely.
The overall risk is considered moderate for people who have multiple sexual partners and low for the general population.
Clinical course
The disease initially presents with fever, myalgia, fatigue, and headache. Within 3 days of the onset of the prodromal symptoms, a centrifugal maculopapular rash appears on the site of primary infection and rapidly spreads to other parts of the body. The palms of the hands and bottoms of the feet are involved in cases where the rash has spread, which is a characteristic of the disease. Usually within 12 days, the lesions progress, simultaneously changing from macules to papules, blisters, pustules, and scabs before falling off. The lesions may have a central depression and be extremely itchy.
If the patient scratches them, a secondary bacterial infection may take hold (for which treatment with oral antihistamines is indicated). Lesions may also be present in the oral or ocular mucous membrane. Either before or at the same time as onset of the rash, patients may experience swelling of the lymph nodes, which usually is not seen with smallpox or chickenpox.
The onset of the rash is considered the start of the infectious period; however, people with prodromal symptoms may also transmit the virus.
Most cases in people present with mild or moderate symptoms. Complications seen in endemic countries include encephalitis, secondary bacterial skin infections, dehydration, conjunctivitis, keratitis, and pneumonia. The death rate ranges from 0% to 11% in endemic areas, with fatalities from the disease mostly occurring in younger children.
There is not a lot of information available on the disease in immunosuppressed individuals. In the 2017 Nigerian epidemic, patients with a concomitant HIV infection presented with more severe disease, with a greater number of skin lesions and genital ulcers, compared with HIV-negative individuals. No deaths were reported among seropositive patients. The main sequelae from the disease are usually disfiguring scars and permanent corneal lesions.
Treatment
No smallpox vaccines are authorized for use against monkeypox, however the third-generation smallpox vaccine Imvanex (Modified Vaccinia Ankara) has been authorized by the European Medicines Agency (EMA) for the EU market against smallpox and has demonstrated to provide protection in primates.
Old-generation smallpox vaccines have significant side effects, are no longer authorized, and should no longer be used. It is also important to note the lack of safety data for the use of Imvanex in immunocompromised people.
For this reason, National Immunization Technical Advisory Groups have been asked to develop specific guidelines for vaccination in close contacts of patients with monkeypox. The use of a smallpox vaccine for preexposure prophylaxis cannot be considered now, when taking into account the risk-benefit ratio.
In regard to treatment, tecovirimat is the only antiviral drug with an EMA-authorized indication for orthopoxvirus infection.
Brincidofovir is not authorized in the EU but has been authorized by the US Food and Drug Administration. However, availability on the European market is limited somewhat by the number of doses.
According to the ECDC, health care authorities should provide information about which groups should have priority access to treatment.
The use of antivirals for postexposure prophylaxis should be investigated further. Cidofovir is active in vitro for smallpox but has a pronounced nephrotoxicity profile that makes it unsuitable for first-line treatment.
The ECDC document also proposes an interim case definition for epidemiologic reporting. Further indications will also be provided for the management of monkeypox cases and close contacts. Those infected should remain in isolation until the scabs have fallen off and should, above all, avoid close contact with at-risk or immunosuppressed people as well as pets.
Most infected people can remain at home with supportive care.
Prevention
Close contacts for cases of monkeypox should monitor the development of their symptoms until 21 days have passed from their most recent exposure to the virus.
Health care workers should wear appropriate PPE (gloves, water-resistant gowns, FFP2 masks) during screening for suspected cases or when working with confirmed cases. Laboratory staff should also take precautions to avoid exposure in the workplace.
Close contacts of an infected person should not donate blood, organs, or bone marrow for at least 21 days from the last day of exposure.
Finally, the ECDC recommends increasing proactive communication of the risks to increase awareness and provide updates and indications to individuals who are at a greater risk, as well as to the general public. These messages should highlight that monkeypox is spread through close person-to-person contact, especially within the family unit, and also potentially through sexual intercourse. A balance, however, should be maintained between informing the individuals who are at greater risk and communicating that the virus is not easily spread and that the risk for the general population is low.
Human-to-animal transmission
A potential risk for human-to-animal transmission exists in Europe; therefore, a close collaboration is required between human and veterinary health care authorities, working together to manage domestic animals exposed to the virus and to prevent transmission of the disease to wildlife. To date, the European Food Safety Authority is not aware of any reports of animal infections (domestic or wild) within the EU.
There are still many unknown factors about this outbreak. The ECDC continues to closely monitor any developments and will update the risk assessment as soon as new data and information become available.
If human-to-animal transmission occurs and the virus spreads among animal populations, there is a risk that the disease could become an endemic in Europe. Therefore, human and veterinary health care authorities should work together closely to manage cases of domestic animals exposed to the virus and prevent transmission of the disease to wildlife.
A version of this article appeared on Medscape.com. This article was translated from Univadis Italy.
In a new risk-assessment document, the European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control summarizes what we currently know about monkeypox and recommends that European countries focus on the identification and management of the disease as well as contract tracing and prompt reporting of new cases of the virus.
Recent developments
From May 15 to May 23, in eight European Union member states (Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, Portugal, Spain, and Sweden) a total of 85 cases of monkeypox were reported; they were acquired through autochthonous transmission. Current diagnosed cases of monkeypox have mainly been recorded in men who have sexual relations with other men, suggesting that transmission may occur during sexual intercourse, through infectious material coming into contact with mucosa or damaged skin, or via large respiratory droplets during prolonged face-to-face contact.
Andrea Ammon, MD, director of the ECDC, stated that “most current cases have presented with mild symptoms of the disease, and for the general population, the chance of diffusion is very low. However, the likelihood of a further spread of the virus through close contact, for example during sexual activities among people with multiple sexual partners, is considerably increased.”
Stella Kyriakides, European commissioner for health and food safety, added, “I am worried about the increase of cases of monkeypox in the EU and worldwide. We are currently monitoring the situation and, although, at the moment, the probability of it spreading to the general population is low, the situation is evolving. We should all remain alert, making sure that contact tracing and a sufficient diagnostic capacity are in place and guarantee that vaccines and antiviral drugs are available, as well as sufficient personal protective equipment [PPE] for health care professionals.”
Routes of transmission
Monkeypox is not easily spread among people. Person-to-person transmission occurs through close contact with infectious material, coming from skin lesions of an infected person, through air droplets in the case of prolonged face-to-face contact, and through fomites. So far, diagnosed cases suggest that transmission can occur through sexual intercourse.
The incubation period is 5-21 days, and patients are symptomatic for 2-4 weeks.
According to the ECDC, the likelihood of this infection spreading is increased among people who have more than one sexual partner. Although most current cases present with mild symptoms, monkeypox can cause severe disease in some groups (such as young children, pregnant women, and immunosuppressed people). However, the probability of severe disease cannot yet be estimated precisely.
The overall risk is considered moderate for people who have multiple sexual partners and low for the general population.
Clinical course
The disease initially presents with fever, myalgia, fatigue, and headache. Within 3 days of the onset of the prodromal symptoms, a centrifugal maculopapular rash appears on the site of primary infection and rapidly spreads to other parts of the body. The palms of the hands and bottoms of the feet are involved in cases where the rash has spread, which is a characteristic of the disease. Usually within 12 days, the lesions progress, simultaneously changing from macules to papules, blisters, pustules, and scabs before falling off. The lesions may have a central depression and be extremely itchy.
If the patient scratches them, a secondary bacterial infection may take hold (for which treatment with oral antihistamines is indicated). Lesions may also be present in the oral or ocular mucous membrane. Either before or at the same time as onset of the rash, patients may experience swelling of the lymph nodes, which usually is not seen with smallpox or chickenpox.
The onset of the rash is considered the start of the infectious period; however, people with prodromal symptoms may also transmit the virus.
Most cases in people present with mild or moderate symptoms. Complications seen in endemic countries include encephalitis, secondary bacterial skin infections, dehydration, conjunctivitis, keratitis, and pneumonia. The death rate ranges from 0% to 11% in endemic areas, with fatalities from the disease mostly occurring in younger children.
There is not a lot of information available on the disease in immunosuppressed individuals. In the 2017 Nigerian epidemic, patients with a concomitant HIV infection presented with more severe disease, with a greater number of skin lesions and genital ulcers, compared with HIV-negative individuals. No deaths were reported among seropositive patients. The main sequelae from the disease are usually disfiguring scars and permanent corneal lesions.
Treatment
No smallpox vaccines are authorized for use against monkeypox, however the third-generation smallpox vaccine Imvanex (Modified Vaccinia Ankara) has been authorized by the European Medicines Agency (EMA) for the EU market against smallpox and has demonstrated to provide protection in primates.
Old-generation smallpox vaccines have significant side effects, are no longer authorized, and should no longer be used. It is also important to note the lack of safety data for the use of Imvanex in immunocompromised people.
For this reason, National Immunization Technical Advisory Groups have been asked to develop specific guidelines for vaccination in close contacts of patients with monkeypox. The use of a smallpox vaccine for preexposure prophylaxis cannot be considered now, when taking into account the risk-benefit ratio.
In regard to treatment, tecovirimat is the only antiviral drug with an EMA-authorized indication for orthopoxvirus infection.
Brincidofovir is not authorized in the EU but has been authorized by the US Food and Drug Administration. However, availability on the European market is limited somewhat by the number of doses.
According to the ECDC, health care authorities should provide information about which groups should have priority access to treatment.
The use of antivirals for postexposure prophylaxis should be investigated further. Cidofovir is active in vitro for smallpox but has a pronounced nephrotoxicity profile that makes it unsuitable for first-line treatment.
The ECDC document also proposes an interim case definition for epidemiologic reporting. Further indications will also be provided for the management of monkeypox cases and close contacts. Those infected should remain in isolation until the scabs have fallen off and should, above all, avoid close contact with at-risk or immunosuppressed people as well as pets.
Most infected people can remain at home with supportive care.
Prevention
Close contacts for cases of monkeypox should monitor the development of their symptoms until 21 days have passed from their most recent exposure to the virus.
Health care workers should wear appropriate PPE (gloves, water-resistant gowns, FFP2 masks) during screening for suspected cases or when working with confirmed cases. Laboratory staff should also take precautions to avoid exposure in the workplace.
Close contacts of an infected person should not donate blood, organs, or bone marrow for at least 21 days from the last day of exposure.
Finally, the ECDC recommends increasing proactive communication of the risks to increase awareness and provide updates and indications to individuals who are at a greater risk, as well as to the general public. These messages should highlight that monkeypox is spread through close person-to-person contact, especially within the family unit, and also potentially through sexual intercourse. A balance, however, should be maintained between informing the individuals who are at greater risk and communicating that the virus is not easily spread and that the risk for the general population is low.
Human-to-animal transmission
A potential risk for human-to-animal transmission exists in Europe; therefore, a close collaboration is required between human and veterinary health care authorities, working together to manage domestic animals exposed to the virus and to prevent transmission of the disease to wildlife. To date, the European Food Safety Authority is not aware of any reports of animal infections (domestic or wild) within the EU.
There are still many unknown factors about this outbreak. The ECDC continues to closely monitor any developments and will update the risk assessment as soon as new data and information become available.
If human-to-animal transmission occurs and the virus spreads among animal populations, there is a risk that the disease could become an endemic in Europe. Therefore, human and veterinary health care authorities should work together closely to manage cases of domestic animals exposed to the virus and prevent transmission of the disease to wildlife.
A version of this article appeared on Medscape.com. This article was translated from Univadis Italy.
How can we help refugees with PTSD?
This article was originally published in Italian on Univadis .
The arrival of Ukrainian refugees in Western Europe, and especially the arrival of women and children coming from the cities most affected by the attacks, has made local medical services the first point of contact for the diagnosis and care of the psychological effects of war.
Many studies demonstrate the high prevalence of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), depression, and anxiety among refugees. For example, a study from 2019 on refugee mental health offers a disturbing epidemiologic insight: Ten percent of refugees escaping conflict in Nepal showed signs of PTSD, 27.5% suffered from depression, and 22.9% suffered from anxiety. The rate of depression surpasses 90% in all studies carried out on survivors of torture.
Official guidelines
Posttraumatic stress is a form of mental disorder that manifests after experiencing highly traumatic events. Defined and studied in the United States, especially in veterans of the Vietnam War, and subsequently reviewed in relation to more recent conflicts, PTSD may appear in people of all ages. It also can occur in family members, witnesses, and aid workers involved in traumatic events. PTSD may come from repeated exposure to episodes of violence and degradation.
Because PTSD is a complex mental disorder derived from multiple factors, both personal and environmental, a diagnosis is never straightforward. It is generally indicated as “a condition of acute stress which manifests after exposure to a traumatic event.”
Among the most common symptoms of war-related trauma, according to experts, are the onset of flashbacks of troublesome memories, intrusive trauma-related thoughts, panic attacks, insomnia and night terrors, and social avoidance. In children, elements of regression can be observed, such as a need to sleep next to their parents.
Research performed directly on different areas of the brain has demonstrated that people affected by PTSD produce abnormal levels of hormones that are involved in responding to stress and fear. The area of the brain responsible for this response is the amygdala, which activates during moments of fear and produces natural pain-relieving molecules. In people with PTSD, the production of these molecules can carry on long after the event is over, causing a change in emotional state. Furthermore, levels of neurotransmitters that reach the hippocampus are also altered, which influences memory and learning capability. These same alterations concerning neurotransmitter levels are the basis for sudden flashbacks.
People with PTSD are subject to a change in blood flow to the brain and structural changes to brain tissue.
Social factors
“A factor that worsens the mental condition of Ukrainian refugees is the speed in which they have passed from a normal life, similar to that of many other Western countries, to a state of war, death, and injury,” writes Arash Javanbakht, MD, associate professor of psychiatry at Wayne State University in Detroit, and an expert in PTSD in war refugees.
“Furthermore, they are experiencing an awful feeling of injustice, as the democracy and freedom that they have fought so hard to have has been put at risk, and they don’t feel sufficiently supported by their allies.”
As of this writing, the World Health Organization has estimated that there are 3.6 million Ukrainian refugees. This population already has experienced war and its psychological consequences. A study from 2019 assessed the prevalence of PTSD (27%) and depression (21%) among the 1.5 million Ukrainians who had to leave their homes after the first Russian invasion in 2014 and the rebellion of predominantly Russian regions.
Children are particularly at risk of developing PTSD, as seen from studies conducted on Syrian refugees. They have a roughly 70% chance of developing separation anxiety, a condition that many workers and volunteers have experienced firsthand recently. Some children do not accept being separated from their parents even to allow them to go to the bathroom or wash themselves, which also aggravates stress levels among adults. Infant trauma increases the risk of developing physical or mental disorders during adulthood, including depression, chronic pain, heart disorders, and diabetes.
War-related trauma entails transmissible epigenetic alterations, as shown by studies on the transmissibility of trauma on a biological level.
Diagnosis and treatment
People with PTSD have difficulty controlling their emotions, resulting in irritability, sudden rage or emotional confusion, depression and anxiety, and insomnia. They also are determined to avoid any actions that remind them of the traumatic event. Another common symptom is a sense of shame, as a result of having survived or not having been able to save others.
Physical symptoms include chest pain, dizziness, gastrointestinal problems, migraine, and a weakened immune system. A diagnosis of PTSD can be made when, in accordance with the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH), the patient presents with the characteristic symptoms for more than a month after the event that caused the symptoms occurred.
The NIMH highlights that a diagnosis cannot always be made in a systematic way. In many cases, patients with PTSD are treated for the physical symptoms only, without any consideration for the overall picture.
The American Psychiatric Association (APA) has created a detailed list of PTSD symptoms. According to the APA, these symptoms usually appear within 3 months of the trauma, even if stress may appear later. Symptoms are arranged into the following three well-defined categories:
- Intrusive memories. People with PTSD suffer from sudden, vivid memories that are accompanied by painful emotions and a feeling of reliving the trauma. At times, this experience is so strong that the person involved feels as though the traumatic event is repeating itself.
- Avoidance and numbing. The individual seeks to avoid contact with anyone or anything that brings back memories of the trauma. Initially, the person experiences an emotional state of disinterest and detachment, reducing the capacity for emotional interaction and resulting in participation only in simple, routine activities. A lack of emotional processing causes an accumulation of anxiety and tension, which can become a chronic condition, leading to depression. At the same time, people frequently experience a sense of shame.
- Hyperarousal and hypervigilance. People behave as if they are constantly threatened. They react in a sudden, violent way, are unable to concentrate, and have problems with their memory. At times, they use alcohol or other drugs to alleviate pain. People with PTSD may lose control of their lives and therefore be at risk for suicidal behavior.
Why do some people pass unscathed through traumatic situations, whereas others carry the scars forever? There is a correlation with the severity of the trauma, but also with biological and genetic factors, as well as with previous experiences that contribute to increasing an individual’s resilience. Another key element is the rapid and effective treatment of symptoms, which also relates to personal and financial security.
It is not a coincidence that the first guidelines that clinicians follow when treating a traumatized patient aren’t strictly medical. It is necessary to guarantee the financial security of a refugee, but also the security of the few valuable items they have with them (such as keepsakes and pets). Clinicians are advised to facilitate contact with any of the patient’s family members located elsewhere whenever possible. It is appropriate to use relaxation techniques that are compatible with the patient’s cultural approach. Clinicians also check for the most common conditions in the refugee’s population of origin. It is advisable constantly to check for trauma-related symptoms and to listen to the patient’s story. Caregivers should be allowed to stay close to their children and should be provided sufficient information, but not an overwhelming amount.
There isn’t a consensus on how to treat people with PTSD. The possibility that PTSD can be resolved even without specific treatments has not been excluded, if the affected person is cared for and helped within a family and community setting, and if the person’s personal condition allows for this. However, in general, some form of treatment is beneficial before symptoms become chronic.
Pharmacologic and psychological treatment may be implemented. For the latter, the NIMH and the APA suggest that good results can be obtained from cognitive behavioral therapy, where the patient learns to manage his or her anxiety and depression and amend dangerous behaviors, such as the dismissal of his or her own emotions. According to these organizations, group therapy and other forms of psychotherapy have provided good results. The indicated duration of treatment is generally 6-12 weeks, even if this duration strongly depends on the individual’s condition, with subsequent periodic follow-ups. The involvement of the patient’s family and community is important.
The National Center for PTSD in Washington (run by the U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs) has highlighted the importance of a detailed case-by-case assessment to put in place a precise therapy plan. If patients should continue to find themselves in a state of crisis, for example during a war or in cases of domestic violence, working toward removing the cause of stress is first necessary before beginning treatment.
An important aspect is making the victim aware of the disorder. Treatment should therefore begin after the patient and family have been informed about the possibility of PTSD and the way in which it develops. Recognizing the symptoms over the following weeks and working quickly to manage and treat them significantly affects treatment success.
A version of this article first appeared on Medscape.com.
This article was originally published in Italian on Univadis .
The arrival of Ukrainian refugees in Western Europe, and especially the arrival of women and children coming from the cities most affected by the attacks, has made local medical services the first point of contact for the diagnosis and care of the psychological effects of war.
Many studies demonstrate the high prevalence of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), depression, and anxiety among refugees. For example, a study from 2019 on refugee mental health offers a disturbing epidemiologic insight: Ten percent of refugees escaping conflict in Nepal showed signs of PTSD, 27.5% suffered from depression, and 22.9% suffered from anxiety. The rate of depression surpasses 90% in all studies carried out on survivors of torture.
Official guidelines
Posttraumatic stress is a form of mental disorder that manifests after experiencing highly traumatic events. Defined and studied in the United States, especially in veterans of the Vietnam War, and subsequently reviewed in relation to more recent conflicts, PTSD may appear in people of all ages. It also can occur in family members, witnesses, and aid workers involved in traumatic events. PTSD may come from repeated exposure to episodes of violence and degradation.
Because PTSD is a complex mental disorder derived from multiple factors, both personal and environmental, a diagnosis is never straightforward. It is generally indicated as “a condition of acute stress which manifests after exposure to a traumatic event.”
Among the most common symptoms of war-related trauma, according to experts, are the onset of flashbacks of troublesome memories, intrusive trauma-related thoughts, panic attacks, insomnia and night terrors, and social avoidance. In children, elements of regression can be observed, such as a need to sleep next to their parents.
Research performed directly on different areas of the brain has demonstrated that people affected by PTSD produce abnormal levels of hormones that are involved in responding to stress and fear. The area of the brain responsible for this response is the amygdala, which activates during moments of fear and produces natural pain-relieving molecules. In people with PTSD, the production of these molecules can carry on long after the event is over, causing a change in emotional state. Furthermore, levels of neurotransmitters that reach the hippocampus are also altered, which influences memory and learning capability. These same alterations concerning neurotransmitter levels are the basis for sudden flashbacks.
People with PTSD are subject to a change in blood flow to the brain and structural changes to brain tissue.
Social factors
“A factor that worsens the mental condition of Ukrainian refugees is the speed in which they have passed from a normal life, similar to that of many other Western countries, to a state of war, death, and injury,” writes Arash Javanbakht, MD, associate professor of psychiatry at Wayne State University in Detroit, and an expert in PTSD in war refugees.
“Furthermore, they are experiencing an awful feeling of injustice, as the democracy and freedom that they have fought so hard to have has been put at risk, and they don’t feel sufficiently supported by their allies.”
As of this writing, the World Health Organization has estimated that there are 3.6 million Ukrainian refugees. This population already has experienced war and its psychological consequences. A study from 2019 assessed the prevalence of PTSD (27%) and depression (21%) among the 1.5 million Ukrainians who had to leave their homes after the first Russian invasion in 2014 and the rebellion of predominantly Russian regions.
Children are particularly at risk of developing PTSD, as seen from studies conducted on Syrian refugees. They have a roughly 70% chance of developing separation anxiety, a condition that many workers and volunteers have experienced firsthand recently. Some children do not accept being separated from their parents even to allow them to go to the bathroom or wash themselves, which also aggravates stress levels among adults. Infant trauma increases the risk of developing physical or mental disorders during adulthood, including depression, chronic pain, heart disorders, and diabetes.
War-related trauma entails transmissible epigenetic alterations, as shown by studies on the transmissibility of trauma on a biological level.
Diagnosis and treatment
People with PTSD have difficulty controlling their emotions, resulting in irritability, sudden rage or emotional confusion, depression and anxiety, and insomnia. They also are determined to avoid any actions that remind them of the traumatic event. Another common symptom is a sense of shame, as a result of having survived or not having been able to save others.
Physical symptoms include chest pain, dizziness, gastrointestinal problems, migraine, and a weakened immune system. A diagnosis of PTSD can be made when, in accordance with the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH), the patient presents with the characteristic symptoms for more than a month after the event that caused the symptoms occurred.
The NIMH highlights that a diagnosis cannot always be made in a systematic way. In many cases, patients with PTSD are treated for the physical symptoms only, without any consideration for the overall picture.
The American Psychiatric Association (APA) has created a detailed list of PTSD symptoms. According to the APA, these symptoms usually appear within 3 months of the trauma, even if stress may appear later. Symptoms are arranged into the following three well-defined categories:
- Intrusive memories. People with PTSD suffer from sudden, vivid memories that are accompanied by painful emotions and a feeling of reliving the trauma. At times, this experience is so strong that the person involved feels as though the traumatic event is repeating itself.
- Avoidance and numbing. The individual seeks to avoid contact with anyone or anything that brings back memories of the trauma. Initially, the person experiences an emotional state of disinterest and detachment, reducing the capacity for emotional interaction and resulting in participation only in simple, routine activities. A lack of emotional processing causes an accumulation of anxiety and tension, which can become a chronic condition, leading to depression. At the same time, people frequently experience a sense of shame.
- Hyperarousal and hypervigilance. People behave as if they are constantly threatened. They react in a sudden, violent way, are unable to concentrate, and have problems with their memory. At times, they use alcohol or other drugs to alleviate pain. People with PTSD may lose control of their lives and therefore be at risk for suicidal behavior.
Why do some people pass unscathed through traumatic situations, whereas others carry the scars forever? There is a correlation with the severity of the trauma, but also with biological and genetic factors, as well as with previous experiences that contribute to increasing an individual’s resilience. Another key element is the rapid and effective treatment of symptoms, which also relates to personal and financial security.
It is not a coincidence that the first guidelines that clinicians follow when treating a traumatized patient aren’t strictly medical. It is necessary to guarantee the financial security of a refugee, but also the security of the few valuable items they have with them (such as keepsakes and pets). Clinicians are advised to facilitate contact with any of the patient’s family members located elsewhere whenever possible. It is appropriate to use relaxation techniques that are compatible with the patient’s cultural approach. Clinicians also check for the most common conditions in the refugee’s population of origin. It is advisable constantly to check for trauma-related symptoms and to listen to the patient’s story. Caregivers should be allowed to stay close to their children and should be provided sufficient information, but not an overwhelming amount.
There isn’t a consensus on how to treat people with PTSD. The possibility that PTSD can be resolved even without specific treatments has not been excluded, if the affected person is cared for and helped within a family and community setting, and if the person’s personal condition allows for this. However, in general, some form of treatment is beneficial before symptoms become chronic.
Pharmacologic and psychological treatment may be implemented. For the latter, the NIMH and the APA suggest that good results can be obtained from cognitive behavioral therapy, where the patient learns to manage his or her anxiety and depression and amend dangerous behaviors, such as the dismissal of his or her own emotions. According to these organizations, group therapy and other forms of psychotherapy have provided good results. The indicated duration of treatment is generally 6-12 weeks, even if this duration strongly depends on the individual’s condition, with subsequent periodic follow-ups. The involvement of the patient’s family and community is important.
The National Center for PTSD in Washington (run by the U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs) has highlighted the importance of a detailed case-by-case assessment to put in place a precise therapy plan. If patients should continue to find themselves in a state of crisis, for example during a war or in cases of domestic violence, working toward removing the cause of stress is first necessary before beginning treatment.
An important aspect is making the victim aware of the disorder. Treatment should therefore begin after the patient and family have been informed about the possibility of PTSD and the way in which it develops. Recognizing the symptoms over the following weeks and working quickly to manage and treat them significantly affects treatment success.
A version of this article first appeared on Medscape.com.
This article was originally published in Italian on Univadis .
The arrival of Ukrainian refugees in Western Europe, and especially the arrival of women and children coming from the cities most affected by the attacks, has made local medical services the first point of contact for the diagnosis and care of the psychological effects of war.
Many studies demonstrate the high prevalence of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), depression, and anxiety among refugees. For example, a study from 2019 on refugee mental health offers a disturbing epidemiologic insight: Ten percent of refugees escaping conflict in Nepal showed signs of PTSD, 27.5% suffered from depression, and 22.9% suffered from anxiety. The rate of depression surpasses 90% in all studies carried out on survivors of torture.
Official guidelines
Posttraumatic stress is a form of mental disorder that manifests after experiencing highly traumatic events. Defined and studied in the United States, especially in veterans of the Vietnam War, and subsequently reviewed in relation to more recent conflicts, PTSD may appear in people of all ages. It also can occur in family members, witnesses, and aid workers involved in traumatic events. PTSD may come from repeated exposure to episodes of violence and degradation.
Because PTSD is a complex mental disorder derived from multiple factors, both personal and environmental, a diagnosis is never straightforward. It is generally indicated as “a condition of acute stress which manifests after exposure to a traumatic event.”
Among the most common symptoms of war-related trauma, according to experts, are the onset of flashbacks of troublesome memories, intrusive trauma-related thoughts, panic attacks, insomnia and night terrors, and social avoidance. In children, elements of regression can be observed, such as a need to sleep next to their parents.
Research performed directly on different areas of the brain has demonstrated that people affected by PTSD produce abnormal levels of hormones that are involved in responding to stress and fear. The area of the brain responsible for this response is the amygdala, which activates during moments of fear and produces natural pain-relieving molecules. In people with PTSD, the production of these molecules can carry on long after the event is over, causing a change in emotional state. Furthermore, levels of neurotransmitters that reach the hippocampus are also altered, which influences memory and learning capability. These same alterations concerning neurotransmitter levels are the basis for sudden flashbacks.
People with PTSD are subject to a change in blood flow to the brain and structural changes to brain tissue.
Social factors
“A factor that worsens the mental condition of Ukrainian refugees is the speed in which they have passed from a normal life, similar to that of many other Western countries, to a state of war, death, and injury,” writes Arash Javanbakht, MD, associate professor of psychiatry at Wayne State University in Detroit, and an expert in PTSD in war refugees.
“Furthermore, they are experiencing an awful feeling of injustice, as the democracy and freedom that they have fought so hard to have has been put at risk, and they don’t feel sufficiently supported by their allies.”
As of this writing, the World Health Organization has estimated that there are 3.6 million Ukrainian refugees. This population already has experienced war and its psychological consequences. A study from 2019 assessed the prevalence of PTSD (27%) and depression (21%) among the 1.5 million Ukrainians who had to leave their homes after the first Russian invasion in 2014 and the rebellion of predominantly Russian regions.
Children are particularly at risk of developing PTSD, as seen from studies conducted on Syrian refugees. They have a roughly 70% chance of developing separation anxiety, a condition that many workers and volunteers have experienced firsthand recently. Some children do not accept being separated from their parents even to allow them to go to the bathroom or wash themselves, which also aggravates stress levels among adults. Infant trauma increases the risk of developing physical or mental disorders during adulthood, including depression, chronic pain, heart disorders, and diabetes.
War-related trauma entails transmissible epigenetic alterations, as shown by studies on the transmissibility of trauma on a biological level.
Diagnosis and treatment
People with PTSD have difficulty controlling their emotions, resulting in irritability, sudden rage or emotional confusion, depression and anxiety, and insomnia. They also are determined to avoid any actions that remind them of the traumatic event. Another common symptom is a sense of shame, as a result of having survived or not having been able to save others.
Physical symptoms include chest pain, dizziness, gastrointestinal problems, migraine, and a weakened immune system. A diagnosis of PTSD can be made when, in accordance with the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH), the patient presents with the characteristic symptoms for more than a month after the event that caused the symptoms occurred.
The NIMH highlights that a diagnosis cannot always be made in a systematic way. In many cases, patients with PTSD are treated for the physical symptoms only, without any consideration for the overall picture.
The American Psychiatric Association (APA) has created a detailed list of PTSD symptoms. According to the APA, these symptoms usually appear within 3 months of the trauma, even if stress may appear later. Symptoms are arranged into the following three well-defined categories:
- Intrusive memories. People with PTSD suffer from sudden, vivid memories that are accompanied by painful emotions and a feeling of reliving the trauma. At times, this experience is so strong that the person involved feels as though the traumatic event is repeating itself.
- Avoidance and numbing. The individual seeks to avoid contact with anyone or anything that brings back memories of the trauma. Initially, the person experiences an emotional state of disinterest and detachment, reducing the capacity for emotional interaction and resulting in participation only in simple, routine activities. A lack of emotional processing causes an accumulation of anxiety and tension, which can become a chronic condition, leading to depression. At the same time, people frequently experience a sense of shame.
- Hyperarousal and hypervigilance. People behave as if they are constantly threatened. They react in a sudden, violent way, are unable to concentrate, and have problems with their memory. At times, they use alcohol or other drugs to alleviate pain. People with PTSD may lose control of their lives and therefore be at risk for suicidal behavior.
Why do some people pass unscathed through traumatic situations, whereas others carry the scars forever? There is a correlation with the severity of the trauma, but also with biological and genetic factors, as well as with previous experiences that contribute to increasing an individual’s resilience. Another key element is the rapid and effective treatment of symptoms, which also relates to personal and financial security.
It is not a coincidence that the first guidelines that clinicians follow when treating a traumatized patient aren’t strictly medical. It is necessary to guarantee the financial security of a refugee, but also the security of the few valuable items they have with them (such as keepsakes and pets). Clinicians are advised to facilitate contact with any of the patient’s family members located elsewhere whenever possible. It is appropriate to use relaxation techniques that are compatible with the patient’s cultural approach. Clinicians also check for the most common conditions in the refugee’s population of origin. It is advisable constantly to check for trauma-related symptoms and to listen to the patient’s story. Caregivers should be allowed to stay close to their children and should be provided sufficient information, but not an overwhelming amount.
There isn’t a consensus on how to treat people with PTSD. The possibility that PTSD can be resolved even without specific treatments has not been excluded, if the affected person is cared for and helped within a family and community setting, and if the person’s personal condition allows for this. However, in general, some form of treatment is beneficial before symptoms become chronic.
Pharmacologic and psychological treatment may be implemented. For the latter, the NIMH and the APA suggest that good results can be obtained from cognitive behavioral therapy, where the patient learns to manage his or her anxiety and depression and amend dangerous behaviors, such as the dismissal of his or her own emotions. According to these organizations, group therapy and other forms of psychotherapy have provided good results. The indicated duration of treatment is generally 6-12 weeks, even if this duration strongly depends on the individual’s condition, with subsequent periodic follow-ups. The involvement of the patient’s family and community is important.
The National Center for PTSD in Washington (run by the U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs) has highlighted the importance of a detailed case-by-case assessment to put in place a precise therapy plan. If patients should continue to find themselves in a state of crisis, for example during a war or in cases of domestic violence, working toward removing the cause of stress is first necessary before beginning treatment.
An important aspect is making the victim aware of the disorder. Treatment should therefore begin after the patient and family have been informed about the possibility of PTSD and the way in which it develops. Recognizing the symptoms over the following weeks and working quickly to manage and treat them significantly affects treatment success.
A version of this article first appeared on Medscape.com.