Janice A. Espinola, MPH

Although bronchiolitis is the leading cause of hospitalization for US infants,[1] there is a lack of basic prospective data about the expected inpatient clinical course and ongoing uncertainty about when a hospitalized child is ready for discharge to home.[2] This lack of data about children's readiness for discharge may result in variable hospital length‐of‐stay (LOS).[3, 4, 5]

One specific source of variability in discharge readiness and LOS variability may be the lack of consensus about safe threshold oxygen saturation values for discharge in children hospitalized with bronchiolitis.[6, 7] In 2006, the Scottish Intercollegiate Guidelines Network recommended a discharge room air oxygen (RAO2) saturation threshold of 95%.[8] The same year, the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) bronchiolitis clinical practice guideline stated that oxygen is not needed for children with RAO2 saturations 90% who are feeding well and have minimal respiratory distress.[9] There is a need for prospective studies to help clinicians make evidenced‐based discharge decisions for this common condition.

We performed a prospective, multicenter, multiyear study[10, 11, 12] to examine the typical inpatient clinical course of and to develop hospital discharge guidelines for children age <2 years hospitalized with bronchiolitis. We hypothesized that children would not worsen clinically and would be safe to discharge home once their respiratory status improved and they were able to remain hydrated.

METHODS

RESULTS

There were 1916 children hospitalized with bronchiolitis with data on all factors used to define clinical improvement and clinical worsening. The median number of days from the beginning of difficulty breathing until admission was 2 days (IQR, 15.5 days; range, 18 days) and from the beginning of difficulty breathing until clinical improvement was 4 days (IQR, 37.5 days; range, 133 days) (Figure 1). The variance for days to admission was significantly less than the variance for days to clinical improvement (P<0.001).

Figure 1

In this observational study, clinicians discharged 214 (11%) of the 1916 children before meeting the definition of clinical improvement. Thus, 1702 (89%; 95% CI: 87%‐90%) children reached the clinical improvement criteria, had a LOS >1 day, and had data on all factors (Figure 2).

Figure 2

Of the 1702 children who met the clinical improvement criteria, there were 76 children (4%; 95% CI: 3%5%) who worsened (Figure 2). The worsening occurred within a median of 1 day (IQR, 13 days) of clinical improvement. Forty‐six (3%) of the children required transfer to the ICU (1 required intubation, 1 required continuous positive airway pressure, and 4 had apnea), 23 (1%) required oxygen, and 17 (1%) required IV fluids. Eight percent of children met multiple criteria for worsening. A comparison between children who did and did not worsen is shown in Table 1. In general, children who worsened after improvement were younger and born earlier. These children also presented in more severe respiratory distress, had moderate or severe retractions, oxygen saturation <85% at hospitalization, inadequate oral intake, and apnea documented during the hospitalization. Neither viral etiology nor site of care influenced whether the children worsened after improving. However, stratified analysis of children based on initial location of admission (ie, ICU or ward) showed that among the children admitted to the ICU from the emergency department (ED), 89% met the improvement criteria and 19% clinically worsened. In contrast, among children admitted to the ward from the ED, 89% met the improvement criteria, and only 2% clinically worsened. Stratified multivariable models based on the initial location of admission from the ED (ie, ICU or ward) were not possible due to small sample sizes after stratification. None of these children had relapse events requiring rehospitalization within either 24 hours or 7 days of discharge.

On multivariable analysis (Table 2), independent risk factors for worsening after reaching the clinical improvement criteria were young age, preterm birth, and presenting to care with more severe bronchiolitis represented by severe retractions, inadequate oral intake, or apnea. To further evaluate the improvement criteria in the current analysis, multiple sensitivity analyses were conducted. The frequency of clinical worsening after reaching the improvement criteria was stable when we examined different RA02 criteria in sensitivity analyses: (1) excluding RA02 as a criterion for improvement: 90% met improvement criteria and 4% experienced clinical worsening, (2) changing the average RA02 threshold for clinical improvement to 94%: 62% met improvement criteria and 6% experienced clinical worsening, and (3) changing the average RA02 threshold for clinical improvement to 95%: 47% met improvement criteria and 5% experienced clinical worsening. Furthermore, stratifying by age <2 months and restricting to more stringent definitions of bronchiolitis (ie, age <1 year or age <1 year+no history of wheezing) also did not materially change the results (see Supporting Figure 1 in the online version of this article).

We compared the 214 children who were discharged prior to reaching clinical improvement with the 1702 children who reached the clinical improvement criteria. The 214 children were less likely to be age <2 months (22% vs 30%; P=0.02). These 2 groups (214 vs 1702) were similar with respect to severe retractions (2% vs 4%; P=0.13), median respiratory rate (48 vs 48; P=0.42), oxygen saturation <90% (15% vs 11%; P=0.07), inadequate oral intake (50% vs 43%; P=0.13), and rates of relapse events requiring rehospitalization within both 24 hours (0.6% vs 0.6%; P=0.88) and 7 days (1% vs 1%; P=0.90) of discharge.

DISCUSSION

In this large, multicenter, multiyear study of children hospitalized with bronchiolitis, we found that children present to a hospital in a relatively narrow time frame, but their time to recovery in the hospital is highly variable. Nonetheless, 96% of children continued to improve once they had: (1) improving or stable retractions rated as none/mild, (2) a decreasing or stable RR by age, (3) estimated average RAO2 saturation 90% and lowest RAO2 saturation of 88%, and (4) were hydrated. The 4% of children who worsened after clinically improving were more likely to be age <2 months, born <37 weeks, and present with more severe distress (ie, severe retractions, inadequate oral intake, or apnea). Based on the low risk of worsening after clinical improvement, especially among children admitted to the regular ward (2%), we believe these 4 clinical criteria could be used as discharge criteria for this common pediatric illness with a predominantly monophasic clinical course.

Variability in hospital LOS for children with bronchiolitis exists in the United States[3] and internationally.[4, 5] Cheung and colleagues analyzed administrative data from over 75,000 children admitted for bronchiolitis in England between April 2007 and March 2010 and found sixfold variation in LOS between sites. They concluded that this LOS variability was due in part to providers' clinical decision making.[5] Srivastava and colleagues[23] addressed variable clinician decision making in bronchiolitis and 10 other common pediatric conditions by embedding discharge criteria developed by expert consensus into admission order sets. They found that for children with bronchiolitis, the embedded discharge criteria reduced the median LOS from 1.91 to 1.87 days. In contrast to the single‐center data presented by White and colleagues,[24] the prospective, multicenter MARC‐30 data provide a clear understanding of the normal clinical course for children hospitalized with bronchiolitis, determine if children clinically worsen after clinical improvement, and provide data about discharge criteria for children hospitalized with bronchiolitis. Although there is a lack of rigorous published data, the lower tract symptoms of bronchiolitis (eg, cough, retractions) are said to peak on days 5 to 7 of illness and then gradually resolve.[25] In the present study, we found that the time from the onset of difficulty breathing until hospital admission is less variable than the time from the onset of difficulty breathing until either clinical improvement or discharge. Although 75% of children have clinically improved within 7.5 days of difficulty breathing based on the IQR results, the remaining 25% may have a more prolonged recovery in the hospital of up to 3 weeks. Interestingly, prolonged recovery times from bronchiolitis have also been noted in children presenting to the ED[26] and in an outpatient population.[27] It is unclear why 20% to 25% of children at different levels of severity of illness have prolonged recovery from bronchiolitis, but this group of children requires further investigation.

Given the variability of recovery times, clinicians may have difficulty knowing when a child is ready for hospital discharge. One of the main stumbling blocks for discharge readiness in children with bronchiolitis is the interpretation of the oxygen saturation value.[6, 8, 9, 20, 28] However, it should be considered that interpreting the oxygen saturation in a child who is clinically improving in the hospital setting is different than interpreting the oxygen saturation of a child in the ED or the clinic whose clinical course is less certain.[22] In the hospital setting, using the oxygen saturation value in in the AAP guideline,[9] 4% of children clinically worsened after they met the improvement criteria, a clinical pattern observed previously with supplemental oxygen.[28] This unpredictability may explain some of the variation in providers' clinical decision making.[5] The children who worsened, and therefore deserve more cautious discharge planning, were young (<2 months), premature (<37 weeks gestational age), and presented in more severe distress. Those children admitted to the ICU from the ED worsened more commonly than children admitted to the ward (19% vs 2%). Interestingly, the viral etiology of the child's bronchiolitis did not influence whether a child worsened after reaching the improvement criteria. Therefore, although children with RV bronchiolitis have a shorter hospital LOS than children with RSV bronchiolitis,[11] the pattern of recovery did not differ by viral etiology.

In addition to unsafe discharges, clinicians may be concerned about the possibility of readmissions. Although somewhat controversial, hospital readmission is being used as a quality of care metric.[29, 30, 31] One response to minimize readmissions would be for clinicians to observe children for longer than clinically indicated.[32] However, shorter LOS is not necessarily associated with increased readmission rates.[33] Given that the geometric mean of hospital charges per child with bronchiolitis increased from $6380 in 2000 to $8530 in 2009,[34] the potential for safely reducing hospital LOS by using the discharge criteria proposed in the current study instead of other criteria[8] may net substantial cost savings. Furthermore, reducing LOS would decrease the time children expose others to these respiratory viruses and possibly reduce medical errors.[35]

Our study has some potential limitations. Because the study participants were all hospitalized, these data do not inform admission or discharge decisions from either the ED or the clinic; but other data address those clinical scenarios.[22] Also, the 16 sites that participated in this study were large, urban teaching hospitals. Consequently, these results are not necessarily generalizable to smaller community hospitals. Although numerous data points were required to enter the analytic cohort, only 9% of the sample was excluded for missing data. There were 214 children who did not meet our improvement criteria by the time of discharge. Although the inability to include these children in the analysis may be seen as a limitation, this practice variability underscores the need for more data about discharging hospitalized children with bronchiolitis. Last, site teams reviewed medical records daily. More frequent recording of the clinical course would have yielded more granular data, but the current methodology replicates how data are generally presented during patient care rounds, when decisions about suitability for discharge are often considered.

CONCLUSION

We documented in this large multicenter study that most children hospitalized with bronchiolitis had a wide range of time to recovery, but the vast majority continued to improve once they reached the identified clinical criteria that predict a safe discharge to home. The children who worsened after clinical improvement were more likely to be younger, premature infants presenting in more severe distress. Although additional prospective validation of these hospital discharge criteria is warranted, these data may help clinicians make more evidence‐based discharge decisions for a common pediatric illness with high practice variation, both in the United States[3] and in other countries.[4, 5]

Although bronchiolitis is the leading cause of hospitalization for US infants,[1] there is a lack of basic prospective data about the expected inpatient clinical course and ongoing uncertainty about when a hospitalized child is ready for discharge to home.[2] This lack of data about children's readiness for discharge may result in variable hospital length‐of‐stay (LOS).[3, 4, 5]

One specific source of variability in discharge readiness and LOS variability may be the lack of consensus about safe threshold oxygen saturation values for discharge in children hospitalized with bronchiolitis.[6, 7] In 2006, the Scottish Intercollegiate Guidelines Network recommended a discharge room air oxygen (RAO2) saturation threshold of 95%.[8] The same year, the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) bronchiolitis clinical practice guideline stated that oxygen is not needed for children with RAO2 saturations 90% who are feeding well and have minimal respiratory distress.[9] There is a need for prospective studies to help clinicians make evidenced‐based discharge decisions for this common condition.

We performed a prospective, multicenter, multiyear study[10, 11, 12] to examine the typical inpatient clinical course of and to develop hospital discharge guidelines for children age <2 years hospitalized with bronchiolitis. We hypothesized that children would not worsen clinically and would be safe to discharge home once their respiratory status improved and they were able to remain hydrated.

METHODS

RESULTS

There were 1916 children hospitalized with bronchiolitis with data on all factors used to define clinical improvement and clinical worsening. The median number of days from the beginning of difficulty breathing until admission was 2 days (IQR, 15.5 days; range, 18 days) and from the beginning of difficulty breathing until clinical improvement was 4 days (IQR, 37.5 days; range, 133 days) (Figure 1). The variance for days to admission was significantly less than the variance for days to clinical improvement (P<0.001).

Figure 1

In this observational study, clinicians discharged 214 (11%) of the 1916 children before meeting the definition of clinical improvement. Thus, 1702 (89%; 95% CI: 87%‐90%) children reached the clinical improvement criteria, had a LOS >1 day, and had data on all factors (Figure 2).

Figure 2

Of the 1702 children who met the clinical improvement criteria, there were 76 children (4%; 95% CI: 3%5%) who worsened (Figure 2). The worsening occurred within a median of 1 day (IQR, 13 days) of clinical improvement. Forty‐six (3%) of the children required transfer to the ICU (1 required intubation, 1 required continuous positive airway pressure, and 4 had apnea), 23 (1%) required oxygen, and 17 (1%) required IV fluids. Eight percent of children met multiple criteria for worsening. A comparison between children who did and did not worsen is shown in Table 1. In general, children who worsened after improvement were younger and born earlier. These children also presented in more severe respiratory distress, had moderate or severe retractions, oxygen saturation <85% at hospitalization, inadequate oral intake, and apnea documented during the hospitalization. Neither viral etiology nor site of care influenced whether the children worsened after improving. However, stratified analysis of children based on initial location of admission (ie, ICU or ward) showed that among the children admitted to the ICU from the emergency department (ED), 89% met the improvement criteria and 19% clinically worsened. In contrast, among children admitted to the ward from the ED, 89% met the improvement criteria, and only 2% clinically worsened. Stratified multivariable models based on the initial location of admission from the ED (ie, ICU or ward) were not possible due to small sample sizes after stratification. None of these children had relapse events requiring rehospitalization within either 24 hours or 7 days of discharge.

On multivariable analysis (Table 2), independent risk factors for worsening after reaching the clinical improvement criteria were young age, preterm birth, and presenting to care with more severe bronchiolitis represented by severe retractions, inadequate oral intake, or apnea. To further evaluate the improvement criteria in the current analysis, multiple sensitivity analyses were conducted. The frequency of clinical worsening after reaching the improvement criteria was stable when we examined different RA02 criteria in sensitivity analyses: (1) excluding RA02 as a criterion for improvement: 90% met improvement criteria and 4% experienced clinical worsening, (2) changing the average RA02 threshold for clinical improvement to 94%: 62% met improvement criteria and 6% experienced clinical worsening, and (3) changing the average RA02 threshold for clinical improvement to 95%: 47% met improvement criteria and 5% experienced clinical worsening. Furthermore, stratifying by age <2 months and restricting to more stringent definitions of bronchiolitis (ie, age <1 year or age <1 year+no history of wheezing) also did not materially change the results (see Supporting Figure 1 in the online version of this article).

We compared the 214 children who were discharged prior to reaching clinical improvement with the 1702 children who reached the clinical improvement criteria. The 214 children were less likely to be age <2 months (22% vs 30%; P=0.02). These 2 groups (214 vs 1702) were similar with respect to severe retractions (2% vs 4%; P=0.13), median respiratory rate (48 vs 48; P=0.42), oxygen saturation <90% (15% vs 11%; P=0.07), inadequate oral intake (50% vs 43%; P=0.13), and rates of relapse events requiring rehospitalization within both 24 hours (0.6% vs 0.6%; P=0.88) and 7 days (1% vs 1%; P=0.90) of discharge.

DISCUSSION

In this large, multicenter, multiyear study of children hospitalized with bronchiolitis, we found that children present to a hospital in a relatively narrow time frame, but their time to recovery in the hospital is highly variable. Nonetheless, 96% of children continued to improve once they had: (1) improving or stable retractions rated as none/mild, (2) a decreasing or stable RR by age, (3) estimated average RAO2 saturation 90% and lowest RAO2 saturation of 88%, and (4) were hydrated. The 4% of children who worsened after clinically improving were more likely to be age <2 months, born <37 weeks, and present with more severe distress (ie, severe retractions, inadequate oral intake, or apnea). Based on the low risk of worsening after clinical improvement, especially among children admitted to the regular ward (2%), we believe these 4 clinical criteria could be used as discharge criteria for this common pediatric illness with a predominantly monophasic clinical course.

Variability in hospital LOS for children with bronchiolitis exists in the United States[3] and internationally.[4, 5] Cheung and colleagues analyzed administrative data from over 75,000 children admitted for bronchiolitis in England between April 2007 and March 2010 and found sixfold variation in LOS between sites. They concluded that this LOS variability was due in part to providers' clinical decision making.[5] Srivastava and colleagues[23] addressed variable clinician decision making in bronchiolitis and 10 other common pediatric conditions by embedding discharge criteria developed by expert consensus into admission order sets. They found that for children with bronchiolitis, the embedded discharge criteria reduced the median LOS from 1.91 to 1.87 days. In contrast to the single‐center data presented by White and colleagues,[24] the prospective, multicenter MARC‐30 data provide a clear understanding of the normal clinical course for children hospitalized with bronchiolitis, determine if children clinically worsen after clinical improvement, and provide data about discharge criteria for children hospitalized with bronchiolitis. Although there is a lack of rigorous published data, the lower tract symptoms of bronchiolitis (eg, cough, retractions) are said to peak on days 5 to 7 of illness and then gradually resolve.[25] In the present study, we found that the time from the onset of difficulty breathing until hospital admission is less variable than the time from the onset of difficulty breathing until either clinical improvement or discharge. Although 75% of children have clinically improved within 7.5 days of difficulty breathing based on the IQR results, the remaining 25% may have a more prolonged recovery in the hospital of up to 3 weeks. Interestingly, prolonged recovery times from bronchiolitis have also been noted in children presenting to the ED[26] and in an outpatient population.[27] It is unclear why 20% to 25% of children at different levels of severity of illness have prolonged recovery from bronchiolitis, but this group of children requires further investigation.

Given the variability of recovery times, clinicians may have difficulty knowing when a child is ready for hospital discharge. One of the main stumbling blocks for discharge readiness in children with bronchiolitis is the interpretation of the oxygen saturation value.[6, 8, 9, 20, 28] However, it should be considered that interpreting the oxygen saturation in a child who is clinically improving in the hospital setting is different than interpreting the oxygen saturation of a child in the ED or the clinic whose clinical course is less certain.[22] In the hospital setting, using the oxygen saturation value in in the AAP guideline,[9] 4% of children clinically worsened after they met the improvement criteria, a clinical pattern observed previously with supplemental oxygen.[28] This unpredictability may explain some of the variation in providers' clinical decision making.[5] The children who worsened, and therefore deserve more cautious discharge planning, were young (<2 months), premature (<37 weeks gestational age), and presented in more severe distress. Those children admitted to the ICU from the ED worsened more commonly than children admitted to the ward (19% vs 2%). Interestingly, the viral etiology of the child's bronchiolitis did not influence whether a child worsened after reaching the improvement criteria. Therefore, although children with RV bronchiolitis have a shorter hospital LOS than children with RSV bronchiolitis,[11] the pattern of recovery did not differ by viral etiology.

In addition to unsafe discharges, clinicians may be concerned about the possibility of readmissions. Although somewhat controversial, hospital readmission is being used as a quality of care metric.[29, 30, 31] One response to minimize readmissions would be for clinicians to observe children for longer than clinically indicated.[32] However, shorter LOS is not necessarily associated with increased readmission rates.[33] Given that the geometric mean of hospital charges per child with bronchiolitis increased from $6380 in 2000 to $8530 in 2009,[34] the potential for safely reducing hospital LOS by using the discharge criteria proposed in the current study instead of other criteria[8] may net substantial cost savings. Furthermore, reducing LOS would decrease the time children expose others to these respiratory viruses and possibly reduce medical errors.[35]

Our study has some potential limitations. Because the study participants were all hospitalized, these data do not inform admission or discharge decisions from either the ED or the clinic; but other data address those clinical scenarios.[22] Also, the 16 sites that participated in this study were large, urban teaching hospitals. Consequently, these results are not necessarily generalizable to smaller community hospitals. Although numerous data points were required to enter the analytic cohort, only 9% of the sample was excluded for missing data. There were 214 children who did not meet our improvement criteria by the time of discharge. Although the inability to include these children in the analysis may be seen as a limitation, this practice variability underscores the need for more data about discharging hospitalized children with bronchiolitis. Last, site teams reviewed medical records daily. More frequent recording of the clinical course would have yielded more granular data, but the current methodology replicates how data are generally presented during patient care rounds, when decisions about suitability for discharge are often considered.

CONCLUSION

We documented in this large multicenter study that most children hospitalized with bronchiolitis had a wide range of time to recovery, but the vast majority continued to improve once they reached the identified clinical criteria that predict a safe discharge to home. The children who worsened after clinical improvement were more likely to be younger, premature infants presenting in more severe distress. Although additional prospective validation of these hospital discharge criteria is warranted, these data may help clinicians make more evidence‐based discharge decisions for a common pediatric illness with high practice variation, both in the United States[3] and in other countries.[4, 5]

Although bronchiolitis is the leading cause of hospitalization for US infants,[1] there is a lack of basic prospective data about the expected inpatient clinical course and ongoing uncertainty about when a hospitalized child is ready for discharge to home.[2] This lack of data about children's readiness for discharge may result in variable hospital length‐of‐stay (LOS).[3, 4, 5]

One specific source of variability in discharge readiness and LOS variability may be the lack of consensus about safe threshold oxygen saturation values for discharge in children hospitalized with bronchiolitis.[6, 7] In 2006, the Scottish Intercollegiate Guidelines Network recommended a discharge room air oxygen (RAO2) saturation threshold of 95%.[8] The same year, the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) bronchiolitis clinical practice guideline stated that oxygen is not needed for children with RAO2 saturations 90% who are feeding well and have minimal respiratory distress.[9] There is a need for prospective studies to help clinicians make evidenced‐based discharge decisions for this common condition.

We performed a prospective, multicenter, multiyear study[10, 11, 12] to examine the typical inpatient clinical course of and to develop hospital discharge guidelines for children age <2 years hospitalized with bronchiolitis. We hypothesized that children would not worsen clinically and would be safe to discharge home once their respiratory status improved and they were able to remain hydrated.

METHODS

RESULTS

There were 1916 children hospitalized with bronchiolitis with data on all factors used to define clinical improvement and clinical worsening. The median number of days from the beginning of difficulty breathing until admission was 2 days (IQR, 15.5 days; range, 18 days) and from the beginning of difficulty breathing until clinical improvement was 4 days (IQR, 37.5 days; range, 133 days) (Figure 1). The variance for days to admission was significantly less than the variance for days to clinical improvement (P<0.001).

Figure 1

In this observational study, clinicians discharged 214 (11%) of the 1916 children before meeting the definition of clinical improvement. Thus, 1702 (89%; 95% CI: 87%‐90%) children reached the clinical improvement criteria, had a LOS >1 day, and had data on all factors (Figure 2).

Figure 2

Of the 1702 children who met the clinical improvement criteria, there were 76 children (4%; 95% CI: 3%5%) who worsened (Figure 2). The worsening occurred within a median of 1 day (IQR, 13 days) of clinical improvement. Forty‐six (3%) of the children required transfer to the ICU (1 required intubation, 1 required continuous positive airway pressure, and 4 had apnea), 23 (1%) required oxygen, and 17 (1%) required IV fluids. Eight percent of children met multiple criteria for worsening. A comparison between children who did and did not worsen is shown in Table 1. In general, children who worsened after improvement were younger and born earlier. These children also presented in more severe respiratory distress, had moderate or severe retractions, oxygen saturation <85% at hospitalization, inadequate oral intake, and apnea documented during the hospitalization. Neither viral etiology nor site of care influenced whether the children worsened after improving. However, stratified analysis of children based on initial location of admission (ie, ICU or ward) showed that among the children admitted to the ICU from the emergency department (ED), 89% met the improvement criteria and 19% clinically worsened. In contrast, among children admitted to the ward from the ED, 89% met the improvement criteria, and only 2% clinically worsened. Stratified multivariable models based on the initial location of admission from the ED (ie, ICU or ward) were not possible due to small sample sizes after stratification. None of these children had relapse events requiring rehospitalization within either 24 hours or 7 days of discharge.

On multivariable analysis (Table 2), independent risk factors for worsening after reaching the clinical improvement criteria were young age, preterm birth, and presenting to care with more severe bronchiolitis represented by severe retractions, inadequate oral intake, or apnea. To further evaluate the improvement criteria in the current analysis, multiple sensitivity analyses were conducted. The frequency of clinical worsening after reaching the improvement criteria was stable when we examined different RA02 criteria in sensitivity analyses: (1) excluding RA02 as a criterion for improvement: 90% met improvement criteria and 4% experienced clinical worsening, (2) changing the average RA02 threshold for clinical improvement to 94%: 62% met improvement criteria and 6% experienced clinical worsening, and (3) changing the average RA02 threshold for clinical improvement to 95%: 47% met improvement criteria and 5% experienced clinical worsening. Furthermore, stratifying by age <2 months and restricting to more stringent definitions of bronchiolitis (ie, age <1 year or age <1 year+no history of wheezing) also did not materially change the results (see Supporting Figure 1 in the online version of this article).

We compared the 214 children who were discharged prior to reaching clinical improvement with the 1702 children who reached the clinical improvement criteria. The 214 children were less likely to be age <2 months (22% vs 30%; P=0.02). These 2 groups (214 vs 1702) were similar with respect to severe retractions (2% vs 4%; P=0.13), median respiratory rate (48 vs 48; P=0.42), oxygen saturation <90% (15% vs 11%; P=0.07), inadequate oral intake (50% vs 43%; P=0.13), and rates of relapse events requiring rehospitalization within both 24 hours (0.6% vs 0.6%; P=0.88) and 7 days (1% vs 1%; P=0.90) of discharge.

DISCUSSION

In this large, multicenter, multiyear study of children hospitalized with bronchiolitis, we found that children present to a hospital in a relatively narrow time frame, but their time to recovery in the hospital is highly variable. Nonetheless, 96% of children continued to improve once they had: (1) improving or stable retractions rated as none/mild, (2) a decreasing or stable RR by age, (3) estimated average RAO2 saturation 90% and lowest RAO2 saturation of 88%, and (4) were hydrated. The 4% of children who worsened after clinically improving were more likely to be age <2 months, born <37 weeks, and present with more severe distress (ie, severe retractions, inadequate oral intake, or apnea). Based on the low risk of worsening after clinical improvement, especially among children admitted to the regular ward (2%), we believe these 4 clinical criteria could be used as discharge criteria for this common pediatric illness with a predominantly monophasic clinical course.

Variability in hospital LOS for children with bronchiolitis exists in the United States[3] and internationally.[4, 5] Cheung and colleagues analyzed administrative data from over 75,000 children admitted for bronchiolitis in England between April 2007 and March 2010 and found sixfold variation in LOS between sites. They concluded that this LOS variability was due in part to providers' clinical decision making.[5] Srivastava and colleagues[23] addressed variable clinician decision making in bronchiolitis and 10 other common pediatric conditions by embedding discharge criteria developed by expert consensus into admission order sets. They found that for children with bronchiolitis, the embedded discharge criteria reduced the median LOS from 1.91 to 1.87 days. In contrast to the single‐center data presented by White and colleagues,[24] the prospective, multicenter MARC‐30 data provide a clear understanding of the normal clinical course for children hospitalized with bronchiolitis, determine if children clinically worsen after clinical improvement, and provide data about discharge criteria for children hospitalized with bronchiolitis. Although there is a lack of rigorous published data, the lower tract symptoms of bronchiolitis (eg, cough, retractions) are said to peak on days 5 to 7 of illness and then gradually resolve.[25] In the present study, we found that the time from the onset of difficulty breathing until hospital admission is less variable than the time from the onset of difficulty breathing until either clinical improvement or discharge. Although 75% of children have clinically improved within 7.5 days of difficulty breathing based on the IQR results, the remaining 25% may have a more prolonged recovery in the hospital of up to 3 weeks. Interestingly, prolonged recovery times from bronchiolitis have also been noted in children presenting to the ED[26] and in an outpatient population.[27] It is unclear why 20% to 25% of children at different levels of severity of illness have prolonged recovery from bronchiolitis, but this group of children requires further investigation.

Given the variability of recovery times, clinicians may have difficulty knowing when a child is ready for hospital discharge. One of the main stumbling blocks for discharge readiness in children with bronchiolitis is the interpretation of the oxygen saturation value.[6, 8, 9, 20, 28] However, it should be considered that interpreting the oxygen saturation in a child who is clinically improving in the hospital setting is different than interpreting the oxygen saturation of a child in the ED or the clinic whose clinical course is less certain.[22] In the hospital setting, using the oxygen saturation value in in the AAP guideline,[9] 4% of children clinically worsened after they met the improvement criteria, a clinical pattern observed previously with supplemental oxygen.[28] This unpredictability may explain some of the variation in providers' clinical decision making.[5] The children who worsened, and therefore deserve more cautious discharge planning, were young (<2 months), premature (<37 weeks gestational age), and presented in more severe distress. Those children admitted to the ICU from the ED worsened more commonly than children admitted to the ward (19% vs 2%). Interestingly, the viral etiology of the child's bronchiolitis did not influence whether a child worsened after reaching the improvement criteria. Therefore, although children with RV bronchiolitis have a shorter hospital LOS than children with RSV bronchiolitis,[11] the pattern of recovery did not differ by viral etiology.

In addition to unsafe discharges, clinicians may be concerned about the possibility of readmissions. Although somewhat controversial, hospital readmission is being used as a quality of care metric.[29, 30, 31] One response to minimize readmissions would be for clinicians to observe children for longer than clinically indicated.[32] However, shorter LOS is not necessarily associated with increased readmission rates.[33] Given that the geometric mean of hospital charges per child with bronchiolitis increased from $6380 in 2000 to $8530 in 2009,[34] the potential for safely reducing hospital LOS by using the discharge criteria proposed in the current study instead of other criteria[8] may net substantial cost savings. Furthermore, reducing LOS would decrease the time children expose others to these respiratory viruses and possibly reduce medical errors.[35]

Our study has some potential limitations. Because the study participants were all hospitalized, these data do not inform admission or discharge decisions from either the ED or the clinic; but other data address those clinical scenarios.[22] Also, the 16 sites that participated in this study were large, urban teaching hospitals. Consequently, these results are not necessarily generalizable to smaller community hospitals. Although numerous data points were required to enter the analytic cohort, only 9% of the sample was excluded for missing data. There were 214 children who did not meet our improvement criteria by the time of discharge. Although the inability to include these children in the analysis may be seen as a limitation, this practice variability underscores the need for more data about discharging hospitalized children with bronchiolitis. Last, site teams reviewed medical records daily. More frequent recording of the clinical course would have yielded more granular data, but the current methodology replicates how data are generally presented during patient care rounds, when decisions about suitability for discharge are often considered.

CONCLUSION

We documented in this large multicenter study that most children hospitalized with bronchiolitis had a wide range of time to recovery, but the vast majority continued to improve once they reached the identified clinical criteria that predict a safe discharge to home. The children who worsened after clinical improvement were more likely to be younger, premature infants presenting in more severe distress. Although additional prospective validation of these hospital discharge criteria is warranted, these data may help clinicians make more evidence‐based discharge decisions for a common pediatric illness with high practice variation, both in the United States[3] and in other countries.[4, 5]

Bronchiolitis is the leading cause of hospitalization for infants in the United States, costs more than $500 million annually, and has seen a 30% increase ($1.34 billion to $1.73 billion) in related hospital charges from 2000 to 2009.¹³ Almost all children <2 years old are infected with respiratory syncytial virus, the most common cause of bronchiolitis, with 40% developing clinically recognizable bronchiolitis and 2% becoming hospitalized with severe bronchiolitis.[4, 5] Current American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) guidelines state that routine use of bronchodilators, corticosteroids, and chest x‐rays is not recommended, and supportive care is strongly encouraged.[6] However, a lack of consensus among clinicians persists regarding bronchiolitis management.[7, 8, 9, 10] Although minority children and those with a lower socioeconomic status (SES) in the United States are more likely to present with bronchiolitis to the emergency department (ED) and be subsequently admitted when compared to the general population,[11, 12, 13] to our knowledge, no study has yet examined if race/ethnicity is independently associated with differences in the presentation and management of severe bronchiolitis (ie, bronchiolitis causing hospitalization). Although a prior bronchiolitis‐related study reported that Hispanic children had a longer ED length of stay (LOS) than non‐Hispanic white (NHW) and non‐Hispanic black (NHB) children,[14] other studies concluded that race/ethnicity were not predictors of intensive care unit (ICU) admission or unscheduled healthcare visits post‐ED discharge.[15, 16]

Determining if race/ethnicity is independently associated with certain bronchiolitis management tendencies has implications from both a health disparities standpoint (ie, unequal care based on race/ethnicity) and from a clinical perspective (ie, the potential of certain practices, such as clinical pathways, to increase the likelihood of equitable treatment). To address this knowledge gap, we examined prospective data from a multicenter study designed to evaluate multiple factors related to bronchiolitis hospitalization.

METHODS

RESULTS

Of the 2130 subjects included in this analysis, 818 (38%) were NHW, 511 (24%) were NHB, and 801 (38%) were Hispanic. The median age for children was 4.0 months (IQR, 1.88.5 months), and 60% were male. Most children were publicly insured (65%), 31% had private insurance, and approximately 4% had no insurance. The median household income defined by patient ZIP code was $51,810 (IQR, $39,916$66,272), and nearly all children (97%) had a primary care provider (PCP). Approximately 21% of all children had relevant comorbidities and 17% of children were enrolled from the ICU. Overall, the median LOS was 2 days (IQR, 14 days).

The unadjusted associations between race/ethnicity and other demographic and historical characteristics are shown in Table 1. NHB and Hispanic children were more likely to have public insurance and less likely to have relevant major comorbidities when compared to NHW children. With regard to care received the week before hospitalization, NHW children were more likely to have visited their PCP, taken corticosteroids and/or antibiotics, and were least likely to have visited an ED when compared to NHB and Hispanic children.

The unadjusted associations between race/ethnicity and clinical characteristics at preadmission visit and hospital admission are shown in Table 2. RDSS values were calculated for 2130 children; 1,752 (82%) RDSS values contained all 4 components. Of those requiring imputed values, 234 (11%) were missing 1 component, and 139 (7%) were missing more than 1 component. Per RDSS scores, NHB children presented with a more severe case of bronchiolitis when compared to NHW and Hispanic children. During admission, minority children were more likely to receive nebulized albuterol and less likely to visit the ICU. NHB children received the least inpatient laboratory testing and were least likely to receive chest x‐rays during hospital admission among all groups.

Discharge treatment and outcomes at 1‐week follow‐up are shown in Table 3. A total of 1771 patients (83%) were reached by telephone. No statistically significant differences between racial/ethnic groups were found regarding hospital discharge on corticosteroids and likelihood of bronchiolitis‐related relapse.

Given the large potential for confounding regarding our initial findings, we examined multivariable‐adjusted associations of race/ethnicity and bronchiolitis management (Table 4). Receiving albuterol during the preadmission visit and chest x‐rays during hospitalization remained significantly associated with race/ethnicity in adjusted analyses, as NHB children were most likely to receive albuterol during the preadmission visit but least likely to receive chest x‐rays during hospitalization. Several outcomes with statistically significant differences found during unadjusted analyses (eg, chest x‐rays at preadmission visit, albuterol during hospitalization, CPAP/emntubation use, ICU admission, and LOS) were not independently associated with race/ethnicity in multivariable models. By contrast, adjusted analyses revealed Hispanic children as significantly more likely to be discharged on inhaled corticosteroids when compared to NHW and NHB children; this association had borderline statistical significance (P=0.08) in the unadjusted analysis. Last, we observed no significant racial/ethnic differences with respect to corticosteroids given at preadmission visit or hospitalization as well as no differences regarding bronchiolitis‐related relapse in either unadjusted or adjusted analyses.

DISCUSSION

It is unclear if management and treatment differences found in children with severe bronchiolitis are associated with race/ethnicity. We sought to determine if such differences exist by analyzing data from a prospective multicenter cohort study. Differences in management and treatment are discussed in the context of AAP guidelines, as they are widely used in clinical practice.

The RDSS was used to help assess severity of illness across race/ethnicity. NHB children had the highest RDSS score (ie, most severe bronchiolitis presentation) compared to NHW and Hispanic children. The reason for this difference in severity is unclear, but a potential explanation may be that minority communities lack access to care and as a result delay care and treatment for respiratory disease until care seems absolutely necessary.[19] Indeed, in our sample, minority children were less likely to visit their PCP and take corticosteroids the week before hospitalization when compared with NHW children. Our finding runs counter to a similar study by Boudreaux et al. that found no association between race/ethnicity and the clinical presentation of children with acute asthma during the preadmission setting.[20] The more severe bronchiolitis presentation among NHB children may have suggested that these children would require a longer hospital LOS (3 days). However, our multivariable analysis found no difference in LOS across racial/ethnic groups. This LOS finding is intriguing given previous studies suggesting that minorities, of diverse ages and with diverse diagnoses, were more likely to have a shorter LOS (as well as less likely to be admitted to the ICU with a similar diagnosis) when compared to nonminorities.[21, 22] Additionally, because our study sampled 16 sites, variation in clinical judgment and pediatric ICU protocol may have also played a role.[23]

Our findings also shed light on how differences in bronchiolitis management relate to AAP guidelines. According to the AAP, corticosteroid medications should not be used routinely in the management of bronchiolitis. Despite this recommendation, previous reports indicate that up to 60% of infants with severe bronchiolitis receive corticosteroid therapy.[24, 25] Our finding that Hispanic children with severe bronchiolitis were most likely to be discharged on inhaled corticosteroids is potentially concerning, as it exposes a subset of children to treatment that is not recommended. On the other hand, given the increased risk of future asthma in Hispanic communities, a higher use of inhaled corticosteroids might be seen as appropriate. Either way, our findings are inconsistent with related studies concluding that racial minority pediatric patients with asthma were less likely to receive inhaled corticosteroids.[26, 27, 28, 29] Similarly, NHB children were most likely to receive albuterol during the preadmission visit on multivariable analysis. Although a trial dose of albuterol may be common practice in treating severe bronchiolitis, AAP recommendations do not support its routine application. Increased albuterol during preadmission may have been related to an elevated bronchiolitis severity at presentation among NHB children (as indicated by the RDSS). Potential reasons for these 2 differences in treatment remain unclear. They may represent medical management efforts by discharging physicians to prescribe: (1) corticosteroids to racial/ethnic communities with a higher risk of childhood asthma; (2) albuterol to children presenting with a more severe case of bronchiolitis. These possibilities merit further study.

The AAP also recommends diagnosis of bronchiolitis on the basis of history and physical examination; laboratory and radiologic studies should not be routinely used for diagnostic purposes. Although it is possible for chest radiograph abnormalities to be consistent with bronchiolitis, there is little evidence that an abnormal finding is associated with disease severity.[30] The clinical value of diagnostic testing in children with bronchiolitis is not well supported by evidence, and limiting exposure to radiation should be a priority.[31, 32] Our analysis found that NHW and Hispanic children were more likely to receive chest x‐rays while hospitalized when compared with NHB children. Unnecessary and increased radiation exposure in children is potentially harmful and warrants intervention to minimize risk.

Establishing systematic clinical pathways in bronchiolitis management may address the practice variation found nationwide and across race/ethnicity in this study. Although clinical guidelines provide general recommendations, clinical pathways are defined treatment protocols aiming to standardize and optimize patient outcomes and clinical efficiency. The incorporation of clinical pathways into healthcare systems has increased recently as a result of their favorable association with medical complications, healthcare costs, and LOS.[33] With respect to bronchiolitis, implementation of clinical pathways has proven to reduce use of inappropriate therapies, decrease risk of bronchiolitis‐related hospital readmission, and help with discharge planning.[30, 34, 35]

Notwithstanding the differences found in this study, management of children with bronchiolitis was, in many respects, comparable across racial/ethnic groups. For example, our multivariable analysis found no significant differences across racial/ethnic groups with respect to chest x‐rays and corticosteroid use during the preadmission visit, administration of albuterol or corticosteroids during hospitalization, use of CPAP/emntubation, ICU admission, hospital LOS, or likelihood of a bronchiolitis‐related relapse. The general lack of race/ethnic differences is consistent with similar research on inpatient management of acute asthma.[36]

This study has potential limitations. The hospitals participating in the study are predominantly urban, academically affiliated hospitals. This may result in findings that are less generalizable to rural and community hospitals. Second, the race/ethnicity classification used does not take into consideration the diversity and complexity of defining race/ethnicity in the United States. Third, bronchiolitis is defined as a clinical diagnosis that can encapsulate multiple lower respiratory infection diagnoses. As a result, there may have been variability in clinical and institutional practice. An additional limitation was utilizing RDSS to assess bronchiolitis severity. Although there is currently no validated, universally accepted score to assess bronchiolitis severity, several scores are available in the literature with varying performance. Last, the ZIP code‐based median household incomes used to assess SES are higher than federal data in similar geographic locations, potentially resulting in findings that are less generalizable.

CONCLUSION

This multicenter prospective cohort study found several differences in bronchiolitis presentation and management among children stratified by race/ethnicity in 16 geographically dispersed sites after controlling for multiple factors including SES. Our analysis showed that, when compared to NHW children, NHB children were more likely to be given albuterol during the preadmission visit and less likely to receive chest x‐rays as inpatients; Hispanic children were more likely to be discharged on inhaled corticosteroids. These differences are concerning for 2 reasons: (1) based on current evidence, race/ethnicity should not affect care in children with severe bronchiolitis; and (2) the observed differences in diagnostic testing and treatment are not recommended by the evidence‐based AAP guidelines. It is also important to note that these differences do not demonstrate that a specific race/ethnicity received better or worse clinical care. The goal of this analysis was not to determine the effectiveness of certain management tendencies in children with severe bronchiolitis, but rather to examine differences in the presentation and management of children from different racial/ethnic groups. The causes for the observed findings require further study. In the meantime, we suggest increasing the number of hospitals that incorporate clinical care pathways for severe bronchiolitis to control variation in practice and limit the impact that race/ethnicity may have in the provision of services.

Bronchiolitis is the leading cause of hospitalization for infants in the United States, costs more than $500 million annually, and has seen a 30% increase ($1.34 billion to $1.73 billion) in related hospital charges from 2000 to 2009.¹³ Almost all children <2 years old are infected with respiratory syncytial virus, the most common cause of bronchiolitis, with 40% developing clinically recognizable bronchiolitis and 2% becoming hospitalized with severe bronchiolitis.[4, 5] Current American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) guidelines state that routine use of bronchodilators, corticosteroids, and chest x‐rays is not recommended, and supportive care is strongly encouraged.[6] However, a lack of consensus among clinicians persists regarding bronchiolitis management.[7, 8, 9, 10] Although minority children and those with a lower socioeconomic status (SES) in the United States are more likely to present with bronchiolitis to the emergency department (ED) and be subsequently admitted when compared to the general population,[11, 12, 13] to our knowledge, no study has yet examined if race/ethnicity is independently associated with differences in the presentation and management of severe bronchiolitis (ie, bronchiolitis causing hospitalization). Although a prior bronchiolitis‐related study reported that Hispanic children had a longer ED length of stay (LOS) than non‐Hispanic white (NHW) and non‐Hispanic black (NHB) children,[14] other studies concluded that race/ethnicity were not predictors of intensive care unit (ICU) admission or unscheduled healthcare visits post‐ED discharge.[15, 16]

Determining if race/ethnicity is independently associated with certain bronchiolitis management tendencies has implications from both a health disparities standpoint (ie, unequal care based on race/ethnicity) and from a clinical perspective (ie, the potential of certain practices, such as clinical pathways, to increase the likelihood of equitable treatment). To address this knowledge gap, we examined prospective data from a multicenter study designed to evaluate multiple factors related to bronchiolitis hospitalization.

METHODS

RESULTS

Of the 2130 subjects included in this analysis, 818 (38%) were NHW, 511 (24%) were NHB, and 801 (38%) were Hispanic. The median age for children was 4.0 months (IQR, 1.88.5 months), and 60% were male. Most children were publicly insured (65%), 31% had private insurance, and approximately 4% had no insurance. The median household income defined by patient ZIP code was $51,810 (IQR, $39,916$66,272), and nearly all children (97%) had a primary care provider (PCP). Approximately 21% of all children had relevant comorbidities and 17% of children were enrolled from the ICU. Overall, the median LOS was 2 days (IQR, 14 days).

The unadjusted associations between race/ethnicity and other demographic and historical characteristics are shown in Table 1. NHB and Hispanic children were more likely to have public insurance and less likely to have relevant major comorbidities when compared to NHW children. With regard to care received the week before hospitalization, NHW children were more likely to have visited their PCP, taken corticosteroids and/or antibiotics, and were least likely to have visited an ED when compared to NHB and Hispanic children.

The unadjusted associations between race/ethnicity and clinical characteristics at preadmission visit and hospital admission are shown in Table 2. RDSS values were calculated for 2130 children; 1,752 (82%) RDSS values contained all 4 components. Of those requiring imputed values, 234 (11%) were missing 1 component, and 139 (7%) were missing more than 1 component. Per RDSS scores, NHB children presented with a more severe case of bronchiolitis when compared to NHW and Hispanic children. During admission, minority children were more likely to receive nebulized albuterol and less likely to visit the ICU. NHB children received the least inpatient laboratory testing and were least likely to receive chest x‐rays during hospital admission among all groups.

Discharge treatment and outcomes at 1‐week follow‐up are shown in Table 3. A total of 1771 patients (83%) were reached by telephone. No statistically significant differences between racial/ethnic groups were found regarding hospital discharge on corticosteroids and likelihood of bronchiolitis‐related relapse.

Given the large potential for confounding regarding our initial findings, we examined multivariable‐adjusted associations of race/ethnicity and bronchiolitis management (Table 4). Receiving albuterol during the preadmission visit and chest x‐rays during hospitalization remained significantly associated with race/ethnicity in adjusted analyses, as NHB children were most likely to receive albuterol during the preadmission visit but least likely to receive chest x‐rays during hospitalization. Several outcomes with statistically significant differences found during unadjusted analyses (eg, chest x‐rays at preadmission visit, albuterol during hospitalization, CPAP/emntubation use, ICU admission, and LOS) were not independently associated with race/ethnicity in multivariable models. By contrast, adjusted analyses revealed Hispanic children as significantly more likely to be discharged on inhaled corticosteroids when compared to NHW and NHB children; this association had borderline statistical significance (P=0.08) in the unadjusted analysis. Last, we observed no significant racial/ethnic differences with respect to corticosteroids given at preadmission visit or hospitalization as well as no differences regarding bronchiolitis‐related relapse in either unadjusted or adjusted analyses.

DISCUSSION

It is unclear if management and treatment differences found in children with severe bronchiolitis are associated with race/ethnicity. We sought to determine if such differences exist by analyzing data from a prospective multicenter cohort study. Differences in management and treatment are discussed in the context of AAP guidelines, as they are widely used in clinical practice.

The RDSS was used to help assess severity of illness across race/ethnicity. NHB children had the highest RDSS score (ie, most severe bronchiolitis presentation) compared to NHW and Hispanic children. The reason for this difference in severity is unclear, but a potential explanation may be that minority communities lack access to care and as a result delay care and treatment for respiratory disease until care seems absolutely necessary.[19] Indeed, in our sample, minority children were less likely to visit their PCP and take corticosteroids the week before hospitalization when compared with NHW children. Our finding runs counter to a similar study by Boudreaux et al. that found no association between race/ethnicity and the clinical presentation of children with acute asthma during the preadmission setting.[20] The more severe bronchiolitis presentation among NHB children may have suggested that these children would require a longer hospital LOS (3 days). However, our multivariable analysis found no difference in LOS across racial/ethnic groups. This LOS finding is intriguing given previous studies suggesting that minorities, of diverse ages and with diverse diagnoses, were more likely to have a shorter LOS (as well as less likely to be admitted to the ICU with a similar diagnosis) when compared to nonminorities.[21, 22] Additionally, because our study sampled 16 sites, variation in clinical judgment and pediatric ICU protocol may have also played a role.[23]

Our findings also shed light on how differences in bronchiolitis management relate to AAP guidelines. According to the AAP, corticosteroid medications should not be used routinely in the management of bronchiolitis. Despite this recommendation, previous reports indicate that up to 60% of infants with severe bronchiolitis receive corticosteroid therapy.[24, 25] Our finding that Hispanic children with severe bronchiolitis were most likely to be discharged on inhaled corticosteroids is potentially concerning, as it exposes a subset of children to treatment that is not recommended. On the other hand, given the increased risk of future asthma in Hispanic communities, a higher use of inhaled corticosteroids might be seen as appropriate. Either way, our findings are inconsistent with related studies concluding that racial minority pediatric patients with asthma were less likely to receive inhaled corticosteroids.[26, 27, 28, 29] Similarly, NHB children were most likely to receive albuterol during the preadmission visit on multivariable analysis. Although a trial dose of albuterol may be common practice in treating severe bronchiolitis, AAP recommendations do not support its routine application. Increased albuterol during preadmission may have been related to an elevated bronchiolitis severity at presentation among NHB children (as indicated by the RDSS). Potential reasons for these 2 differences in treatment remain unclear. They may represent medical management efforts by discharging physicians to prescribe: (1) corticosteroids to racial/ethnic communities with a higher risk of childhood asthma; (2) albuterol to children presenting with a more severe case of bronchiolitis. These possibilities merit further study.

The AAP also recommends diagnosis of bronchiolitis on the basis of history and physical examination; laboratory and radiologic studies should not be routinely used for diagnostic purposes. Although it is possible for chest radiograph abnormalities to be consistent with bronchiolitis, there is little evidence that an abnormal finding is associated with disease severity.[30] The clinical value of diagnostic testing in children with bronchiolitis is not well supported by evidence, and limiting exposure to radiation should be a priority.[31, 32] Our analysis found that NHW and Hispanic children were more likely to receive chest x‐rays while hospitalized when compared with NHB children. Unnecessary and increased radiation exposure in children is potentially harmful and warrants intervention to minimize risk.

Establishing systematic clinical pathways in bronchiolitis management may address the practice variation found nationwide and across race/ethnicity in this study. Although clinical guidelines provide general recommendations, clinical pathways are defined treatment protocols aiming to standardize and optimize patient outcomes and clinical efficiency. The incorporation of clinical pathways into healthcare systems has increased recently as a result of their favorable association with medical complications, healthcare costs, and LOS.[33] With respect to bronchiolitis, implementation of clinical pathways has proven to reduce use of inappropriate therapies, decrease risk of bronchiolitis‐related hospital readmission, and help with discharge planning.[30, 34, 35]

Notwithstanding the differences found in this study, management of children with bronchiolitis was, in many respects, comparable across racial/ethnic groups. For example, our multivariable analysis found no significant differences across racial/ethnic groups with respect to chest x‐rays and corticosteroid use during the preadmission visit, administration of albuterol or corticosteroids during hospitalization, use of CPAP/emntubation, ICU admission, hospital LOS, or likelihood of a bronchiolitis‐related relapse. The general lack of race/ethnic differences is consistent with similar research on inpatient management of acute asthma.[36]

This study has potential limitations. The hospitals participating in the study are predominantly urban, academically affiliated hospitals. This may result in findings that are less generalizable to rural and community hospitals. Second, the race/ethnicity classification used does not take into consideration the diversity and complexity of defining race/ethnicity in the United States. Third, bronchiolitis is defined as a clinical diagnosis that can encapsulate multiple lower respiratory infection diagnoses. As a result, there may have been variability in clinical and institutional practice. An additional limitation was utilizing RDSS to assess bronchiolitis severity. Although there is currently no validated, universally accepted score to assess bronchiolitis severity, several scores are available in the literature with varying performance. Last, the ZIP code‐based median household incomes used to assess SES are higher than federal data in similar geographic locations, potentially resulting in findings that are less generalizable.

CONCLUSION

This multicenter prospective cohort study found several differences in bronchiolitis presentation and management among children stratified by race/ethnicity in 16 geographically dispersed sites after controlling for multiple factors including SES. Our analysis showed that, when compared to NHW children, NHB children were more likely to be given albuterol during the preadmission visit and less likely to receive chest x‐rays as inpatients; Hispanic children were more likely to be discharged on inhaled corticosteroids. These differences are concerning for 2 reasons: (1) based on current evidence, race/ethnicity should not affect care in children with severe bronchiolitis; and (2) the observed differences in diagnostic testing and treatment are not recommended by the evidence‐based AAP guidelines. It is also important to note that these differences do not demonstrate that a specific race/ethnicity received better or worse clinical care. The goal of this analysis was not to determine the effectiveness of certain management tendencies in children with severe bronchiolitis, but rather to examine differences in the presentation and management of children from different racial/ethnic groups. The causes for the observed findings require further study. In the meantime, we suggest increasing the number of hospitals that incorporate clinical care pathways for severe bronchiolitis to control variation in practice and limit the impact that race/ethnicity may have in the provision of services.

Bronchiolitis is the leading cause of hospitalization for infants in the United States, costs more than $500 million annually, and has seen a 30% increase ($1.34 billion to $1.73 billion) in related hospital charges from 2000 to 2009.¹³ Almost all children <2 years old are infected with respiratory syncytial virus, the most common cause of bronchiolitis, with 40% developing clinically recognizable bronchiolitis and 2% becoming hospitalized with severe bronchiolitis.[4, 5] Current American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) guidelines state that routine use of bronchodilators, corticosteroids, and chest x‐rays is not recommended, and supportive care is strongly encouraged.[6] However, a lack of consensus among clinicians persists regarding bronchiolitis management.[7, 8, 9, 10] Although minority children and those with a lower socioeconomic status (SES) in the United States are more likely to present with bronchiolitis to the emergency department (ED) and be subsequently admitted when compared to the general population,[11, 12, 13] to our knowledge, no study has yet examined if race/ethnicity is independently associated with differences in the presentation and management of severe bronchiolitis (ie, bronchiolitis causing hospitalization). Although a prior bronchiolitis‐related study reported that Hispanic children had a longer ED length of stay (LOS) than non‐Hispanic white (NHW) and non‐Hispanic black (NHB) children,[14] other studies concluded that race/ethnicity were not predictors of intensive care unit (ICU) admission or unscheduled healthcare visits post‐ED discharge.[15, 16]

Determining if race/ethnicity is independently associated with certain bronchiolitis management tendencies has implications from both a health disparities standpoint (ie, unequal care based on race/ethnicity) and from a clinical perspective (ie, the potential of certain practices, such as clinical pathways, to increase the likelihood of equitable treatment). To address this knowledge gap, we examined prospective data from a multicenter study designed to evaluate multiple factors related to bronchiolitis hospitalization.

METHODS

RESULTS

Of the 2130 subjects included in this analysis, 818 (38%) were NHW, 511 (24%) were NHB, and 801 (38%) were Hispanic. The median age for children was 4.0 months (IQR, 1.88.5 months), and 60% were male. Most children were publicly insured (65%), 31% had private insurance, and approximately 4% had no insurance. The median household income defined by patient ZIP code was $51,810 (IQR, $39,916$66,272), and nearly all children (97%) had a primary care provider (PCP). Approximately 21% of all children had relevant comorbidities and 17% of children were enrolled from the ICU. Overall, the median LOS was 2 days (IQR, 14 days).

The unadjusted associations between race/ethnicity and other demographic and historical characteristics are shown in Table 1. NHB and Hispanic children were more likely to have public insurance and less likely to have relevant major comorbidities when compared to NHW children. With regard to care received the week before hospitalization, NHW children were more likely to have visited their PCP, taken corticosteroids and/or antibiotics, and were least likely to have visited an ED when compared to NHB and Hispanic children.

The unadjusted associations between race/ethnicity and clinical characteristics at preadmission visit and hospital admission are shown in Table 2. RDSS values were calculated for 2130 children; 1,752 (82%) RDSS values contained all 4 components. Of those requiring imputed values, 234 (11%) were missing 1 component, and 139 (7%) were missing more than 1 component. Per RDSS scores, NHB children presented with a more severe case of bronchiolitis when compared to NHW and Hispanic children. During admission, minority children were more likely to receive nebulized albuterol and less likely to visit the ICU. NHB children received the least inpatient laboratory testing and were least likely to receive chest x‐rays during hospital admission among all groups.

Discharge treatment and outcomes at 1‐week follow‐up are shown in Table 3. A total of 1771 patients (83%) were reached by telephone. No statistically significant differences between racial/ethnic groups were found regarding hospital discharge on corticosteroids and likelihood of bronchiolitis‐related relapse.

Given the large potential for confounding regarding our initial findings, we examined multivariable‐adjusted associations of race/ethnicity and bronchiolitis management (Table 4). Receiving albuterol during the preadmission visit and chest x‐rays during hospitalization remained significantly associated with race/ethnicity in adjusted analyses, as NHB children were most likely to receive albuterol during the preadmission visit but least likely to receive chest x‐rays during hospitalization. Several outcomes with statistically significant differences found during unadjusted analyses (eg, chest x‐rays at preadmission visit, albuterol during hospitalization, CPAP/emntubation use, ICU admission, and LOS) were not independently associated with race/ethnicity in multivariable models. By contrast, adjusted analyses revealed Hispanic children as significantly more likely to be discharged on inhaled corticosteroids when compared to NHW and NHB children; this association had borderline statistical significance (P=0.08) in the unadjusted analysis. Last, we observed no significant racial/ethnic differences with respect to corticosteroids given at preadmission visit or hospitalization as well as no differences regarding bronchiolitis‐related relapse in either unadjusted or adjusted analyses.

DISCUSSION

It is unclear if management and treatment differences found in children with severe bronchiolitis are associated with race/ethnicity. We sought to determine if such differences exist by analyzing data from a prospective multicenter cohort study. Differences in management and treatment are discussed in the context of AAP guidelines, as they are widely used in clinical practice.

The RDSS was used to help assess severity of illness across race/ethnicity. NHB children had the highest RDSS score (ie, most severe bronchiolitis presentation) compared to NHW and Hispanic children. The reason for this difference in severity is unclear, but a potential explanation may be that minority communities lack access to care and as a result delay care and treatment for respiratory disease until care seems absolutely necessary.[19] Indeed, in our sample, minority children were less likely to visit their PCP and take corticosteroids the week before hospitalization when compared with NHW children. Our finding runs counter to a similar study by Boudreaux et al. that found no association between race/ethnicity and the clinical presentation of children with acute asthma during the preadmission setting.[20] The more severe bronchiolitis presentation among NHB children may have suggested that these children would require a longer hospital LOS (3 days). However, our multivariable analysis found no difference in LOS across racial/ethnic groups. This LOS finding is intriguing given previous studies suggesting that minorities, of diverse ages and with diverse diagnoses, were more likely to have a shorter LOS (as well as less likely to be admitted to the ICU with a similar diagnosis) when compared to nonminorities.[21, 22] Additionally, because our study sampled 16 sites, variation in clinical judgment and pediatric ICU protocol may have also played a role.[23]

Our findings also shed light on how differences in bronchiolitis management relate to AAP guidelines. According to the AAP, corticosteroid medications should not be used routinely in the management of bronchiolitis. Despite this recommendation, previous reports indicate that up to 60% of infants with severe bronchiolitis receive corticosteroid therapy.[24, 25] Our finding that Hispanic children with severe bronchiolitis were most likely to be discharged on inhaled corticosteroids is potentially concerning, as it exposes a subset of children to treatment that is not recommended. On the other hand, given the increased risk of future asthma in Hispanic communities, a higher use of inhaled corticosteroids might be seen as appropriate. Either way, our findings are inconsistent with related studies concluding that racial minority pediatric patients with asthma were less likely to receive inhaled corticosteroids.[26, 27, 28, 29] Similarly, NHB children were most likely to receive albuterol during the preadmission visit on multivariable analysis. Although a trial dose of albuterol may be common practice in treating severe bronchiolitis, AAP recommendations do not support its routine application. Increased albuterol during preadmission may have been related to an elevated bronchiolitis severity at presentation among NHB children (as indicated by the RDSS). Potential reasons for these 2 differences in treatment remain unclear. They may represent medical management efforts by discharging physicians to prescribe: (1) corticosteroids to racial/ethnic communities with a higher risk of childhood asthma; (2) albuterol to children presenting with a more severe case of bronchiolitis. These possibilities merit further study.

The AAP also recommends diagnosis of bronchiolitis on the basis of history and physical examination; laboratory and radiologic studies should not be routinely used for diagnostic purposes. Although it is possible for chest radiograph abnormalities to be consistent with bronchiolitis, there is little evidence that an abnormal finding is associated with disease severity.[30] The clinical value of diagnostic testing in children with bronchiolitis is not well supported by evidence, and limiting exposure to radiation should be a priority.[31, 32] Our analysis found that NHW and Hispanic children were more likely to receive chest x‐rays while hospitalized when compared with NHB children. Unnecessary and increased radiation exposure in children is potentially harmful and warrants intervention to minimize risk.

Establishing systematic clinical pathways in bronchiolitis management may address the practice variation found nationwide and across race/ethnicity in this study. Although clinical guidelines provide general recommendations, clinical pathways are defined treatment protocols aiming to standardize and optimize patient outcomes and clinical efficiency. The incorporation of clinical pathways into healthcare systems has increased recently as a result of their favorable association with medical complications, healthcare costs, and LOS.[33] With respect to bronchiolitis, implementation of clinical pathways has proven to reduce use of inappropriate therapies, decrease risk of bronchiolitis‐related hospital readmission, and help with discharge planning.[30, 34, 35]

Notwithstanding the differences found in this study, management of children with bronchiolitis was, in many respects, comparable across racial/ethnic groups. For example, our multivariable analysis found no significant differences across racial/ethnic groups with respect to chest x‐rays and corticosteroid use during the preadmission visit, administration of albuterol or corticosteroids during hospitalization, use of CPAP/emntubation, ICU admission, hospital LOS, or likelihood of a bronchiolitis‐related relapse. The general lack of race/ethnic differences is consistent with similar research on inpatient management of acute asthma.[36]

This study has potential limitations. The hospitals participating in the study are predominantly urban, academically affiliated hospitals. This may result in findings that are less generalizable to rural and community hospitals. Second, the race/ethnicity classification used does not take into consideration the diversity and complexity of defining race/ethnicity in the United States. Third, bronchiolitis is defined as a clinical diagnosis that can encapsulate multiple lower respiratory infection diagnoses. As a result, there may have been variability in clinical and institutional practice. An additional limitation was utilizing RDSS to assess bronchiolitis severity. Although there is currently no validated, universally accepted score to assess bronchiolitis severity, several scores are available in the literature with varying performance. Last, the ZIP code‐based median household incomes used to assess SES are higher than federal data in similar geographic locations, potentially resulting in findings that are less generalizable.

CONCLUSION

This multicenter prospective cohort study found several differences in bronchiolitis presentation and management among children stratified by race/ethnicity in 16 geographically dispersed sites after controlling for multiple factors including SES. Our analysis showed that, when compared to NHW children, NHB children were more likely to be given albuterol during the preadmission visit and less likely to receive chest x‐rays as inpatients; Hispanic children were more likely to be discharged on inhaled corticosteroids. These differences are concerning for 2 reasons: (1) based on current evidence, race/ethnicity should not affect care in children with severe bronchiolitis; and (2) the observed differences in diagnostic testing and treatment are not recommended by the evidence‐based AAP guidelines. It is also important to note that these differences do not demonstrate that a specific race/ethnicity received better or worse clinical care. The goal of this analysis was not to determine the effectiveness of certain management tendencies in children with severe bronchiolitis, but rather to examine differences in the presentation and management of children from different racial/ethnic groups. The causes for the observed findings require further study. In the meantime, we suggest increasing the number of hospitals that incorporate clinical care pathways for severe bronchiolitis to control variation in practice and limit the impact that race/ethnicity may have in the provision of services.