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The new NOACs are generally the best bet
New NOACs have largely replaced the need for vitamin K antagonists
The discovery of oral anticoagulants began in 1924, when Schofield linked the death of grazing cattle from internal hemorrhage to the consumption of spoiled sweet clover hay.1 It was not until 1941, however, while trying to understand this observation that Campbell and Link were able to identify the dicoumarol anticoagulant, which formed as a result of the spoiling process.2 Ultimately, after noting that vitamin K led to reversal of the dicoumarol effect, synthesis of the first class of oral anticoagulants, known as vitamin K antagonists (VKAs) began. Despite the numerous challenges associated with managing patients using this class of anticoagulants, VKAs have become the mainstay of oral anticoagulation therapy for the past 70 years. Over the past 5 years, however, new oral anticoagulants (NOACs) have emerged and are changing clinical practice. Mechanistically, these medications are targeted therapies and work as either direct thrombin inhibitors (dabigatran etexilate) or direct factor Xa inhibitors (rivaroxaban, apixaban, and edoxaban). Given their favorable pharmacologic design, NOACs have the potential to replace VKAs as they not only have an encouraging safety profile, but also are therapeutically equivalent or even superior to VKAs when used in certain patient populations.
Pharmacologic design
The targeted drug design of NOACs provides many pharmacologic advantages. Compared with VKAs, NOACs have a notably more predictable pharmacologic profile and relatively wide therapeutic window, which allows for fixed dosing, a rapid onset and offset, and fewer drug interactions.3 These characteristics eliminate the need for the routine dose monitoring and serial dose adjustments frequently associated with VKAs. Additionally, NOACs less commonly require bridging therapy with parenteral unfractionated heparin or low molecular weight heparins (LMWH) while awaiting therapeutic drug levels, as these levels are reached sooner and more predictably than with VKAs.4 As with any medication, however, appropriate consideration should to be given to specific patient populations such as those who are older or have significant comorbidities which may influence drug effect and clearance.
Lastly, it should be mentioned that the pharmacologic benefits of NOACs are not only beneficial from a patient perspective, but also from a health care systems standpoint as their use may provide an opportunity to deliver more cost-effective care. Specifically, economic models using available clinical trial data for stroke prevention in nonvalvular atrial fibrillation have shown that NOACs (apixaban, dabigatran, and rivaroxaban) are cost-effective alternatives when compared with warfarin.5 Although the results from such economic analyses are limited by the modeling assumptions they rely upon, these findings suggest that, at least initially, cost should not be used as a prohibitive reason for adopting these new therapeutics.
Patient selection
The decision to institute oral anticoagulation therapy depends on each patient’s individualized bleeding risk to benefit of ischemia prevention ratio. A major determinant of this ratio is the clinical indication for which anticoagulation is begun. Numerous phase III clinical trials have been conducted comparing the use of NOACs versus VKAs or placebos for the management of nonvalvular atrial fibrillation (AF), venous thromboembolism (VTE), and as adjunctive therapy for patients with acute coronary syndrome.6 Meta-analyses of randomized trials have shown the most significant benefit to be in patients with nonvalvular atrial fibrillation where NOACs have significant reductions in stroke, intracranial hemorrhage, and all-cause mortality, compared with warfarin while displaying variable effects with regards to gastrointestinal bleeding.6,7
In patients with VTE, NOACs have been found to have similar efficacy, compared with VKAs, with regard to the prevention of VTE or VTE-related death, and have been noted to have a better safety profile.6 Lastly, when studied as an adjunctive agent to dual antiplatelet therapy in patients with acute coronary syndrome, it should be noted that NOACs have been associated with an increased bleeding risk without a significant decrease in thrombosis risk.6 Taken together, these data suggest that the primary indication for instituting NOAC therapy should be considered strongly when deciding upon the class of anticoagulant to use.
Overcoming challenges
Since the introduction of NOACs, there has been concern over the lack of specific antidotes to therapy, especially when administered in patients with impaired clearance, a high likelihood of need for an urgent or emergent procedure, or those presenting with life-threatening bleeding complications. Most recently, however, interim analysis from clinical trial data has shown complete reversal of the direct thrombin inhibitor dabigatran with the humanized monocolonal antibody idarucizumab within minutes of administration in greater than 88% of patients studied.8 Similarly, agents such as a PER977 are currently in phase II clinical trials as they have been shown to form noncovalent hydrogen bonds and charge-charge interactions with oral factor Xa inhibitors as well as oral thrombin inhibitors leading to their reversal.9 Given these promising findings, it likely will not be long until reversal agents for NOACs become clinically available. Until that time, it is encouraging that the bleeding profile of these drugs has been found to be favorable, compared with VKAs, and their short half-life allows for a relatively expeditious natural reversal of their anticoagulant effect as the drug is eliminated.
Conclusions
Unlike the serendipitous path leading to the discovery of the first class of oral anticoagulants (VKAs), NOACs have been specifically designed to provide targeted anticoagulation and to address the shortcomings of VKAs. To this end, NOACs are becoming increasingly important in the management of patients with specific clinical conditions such as nonvalvular atrial fibrillation and venous thromboembolism where they have been shown to provide a larger net clinical benefit relative to the available alternatives. Furthermore, with economic analyses providing evidence that NOACs are cost-effective for the health care system and clinical trial results suggesting progress in the development of antidotes for reversal, it is likely that with growing experience, these agents will replace VKAs as the mainstay for prophylactic and therapeutic oral anticoagulation in targeted patient populations.
Madhukar S. Patel, MD, and Elliot L. Chaikof, MD, are from the department of surgery, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Boston. They reported having no conflicts of interest.
References
1. J Am Vet Med Assoc 1924;64:553-575
3. Hematology Am Soc Hematol Educ Program 2013;2013:464-470
4. Eur Heart J 2013;34:2094-2106
6. Nat Rev Cardiol 2014;11:693-703
8. N Engl J Med 2015;373:511-520
9. N Engl J Med 2014;371:2141-2142
What the doctor didn’t order: unintended consequences and pitfalls of NOACs
Recently, several new oral anticoagulants (NOACs) have gained FDA approval to replace warfarin, capturing the attention of popular media. These include dabigatran, rivaroxaban, apixaban, and edoxaban. Dabigatran targets activated factor II (factor IIa), while rivaroxaban, apixaban, and edoxaban target activated factor X (factor Xa). Easy to take with a once or twice daily pill, with no cumbersome monitoring, they represent a seemingly ideal treatment for the chronically anticoagulated patient. All agents are currently FDA approved in the United States for treatment of acute VTE and AF.
Dabigatran and edoxaban
Similar to warfarin, dabigatran and edoxaban require the use of a LMWH or UFH “bridge” when therapy is beginning, while rivaroxaban and apixaban are instituted as monotherapy without such a bridge. Dabigatran etexilate (PradaxaR, Boehringer Ingelheim) has the longest half-life of all of the NOACs at 12-17 hours, and this half-life is prolonged with increasing age and decreasing renal function.1 It is the only new agent which can be at least partially reversed with dialysis.2 Edoxaban (SavaysaR, Daiichi Sankyo) carries a boxed warning stating that this agent is less effective in AF patients with a creatinine clearance greater than 95 mL/min, and that kidney function should be assessed prior to starting treatment: Such patients have a greater risk of stroke, compared with similar patients treated with warfarin. Edoxaban is the only agent specifically tested at a lower dose in patients at significantly increased risk of bleeding complications (low body weight and/or decreased creatinine clearance).3
Rivaroxaban and apixaban
Rivaroxaban (XareltoR, Bayer and Janssen), and apixaban (EliquisR, Bristol Myers-Squibb), unique amongst the NOACs, have been tested for extended therapy of acute deep vein thrombosis after treatment of 6-12 months. They were found to result in a significant decrease in recurrent VTE without an increase in major bleeding, compared with placebo.4,5 Rivaroxaban has once-daily dosing and apixaban has twice-daily dosing; both are immediate monotherapy, making them quite convenient for patients. Apixaban is the only agent among the NOACs to have a slight decrease in gastrointestinal bleeding, compared with warfarin.6
Consequences and pitfalls with NOACs
Problems with these new drugs, which may diminish our current level of enthusiasm for these agents to totally replace warfarin, include the inability to reliably follow their levels or reverse their anticoagulant effects, the lack of data available on bridging when other procedures need to be performed, their short half-lives, and the lack of data on their anti-inflammatory effects. With regard to monitoring of anticoagulation, the International Society of Thrombosis and Hemostasis (ISTH) has published the times when it might be useful to obtain levels. These times include:
• When a patient is bleeding.
• Before surgery or an invasive procedure when the patient has taken the drug in the previous 24 hours, or longer if creatinine clearance (CrCl) is less than 50 mL min.
• Identification of subtherapeutic or supratherapeutic levels in patients taking other drugs that are known to affect pharmacokinetics.
• Identification of subtherapeutic or supratherapeutic levels in patients at body weight extremes.
• Patients with deteriorating renal function.
• During perioperative management.
• During reversal of anticoagulation.
• When there is suspicion of overdose.
• Assessment of compliance in patients suffering thrombotic events while on treatment.7
Currently, there exists no commercially available reversal agent for any of the NOACs, and existing reversal agents for traditional anticoagulants are of limited, if any, use. Drugs under development include agents for the factor Xa inhibitors and for the thrombin inhibitor. Until the time that specific reversal agents exist, supportive care is the mainstay of therapy. In cases of trauma or severe or life-threatening bleeding, administration of concentrated clotting factors (prothrombin complex concentrate) or dialysis (dabigatran only) may be utilized. However, data from large clinical trials are lacking. A recent study of 90 patients receiving an antibody directed against dabigatran has revealed that the anticoagulant effects of dabigatran were reversed safely within minutes of administration; however drug levels were not consistently suppressed at 24 hours in 20% of the cohort.8
Currently there are no national guidelines or large scale studies to guide bridging NOACs for procedures.
The relatively short half-life for these agents makes it likely that traditional bridging as is practiced for warfarin is not necessary.9 However, this represents a double-edged sword; withholding anticoagulation for two doses (such as if a patient becomes ill or a clinician is overly cautious around the time of a procedure) may leave the patient unprotected.
The final question with the new agents is their anti-inflammatory effects. We know that heparin and LMWH have significant pleiotropic effects that are not necessarily related to their anticoagulant effects. These effects are important in order to decrease the inflammatory nature of the thrombus and its effect on the vein wall. We do not know if the new oral agents have similar effects, as this has never fully been tested. In view of the fact that two of the agents are being used as monotherapy agents without any heparin/LMWH bridge, the anti-inflammatory properties of these new agents should be defined to make sure that such a bridge is not necessary.
So, in summary, although these agents have much to offer, there are many questions that remain to be addressed and answered before they totally replace traditional approaches to anticoagulation, in the realm of VTE. It must not be overlooked that despite all the benefits, they also each carry a risk of bleeding as they all target portions of the coagulation mechanism. We caution that, as with any “gift horse,” physicians should perhaps examine the data more closely and proceed with caution.
Thomas Wakefield, MD, is the Stanley Professor of Vascular Surgery; head, section of vascular surgery; and director, Samuel and Jean Frankel Cardiovascular Center. Andrea Obi, MD, is a vascular surgery fellow and Dawn Coleman MD, is the program director, section of vascular surgery, all at the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. They reported having no conflicts of interest.
References
1. N Engl J Med. 2009;361:2342-2352
2. J Vasc Surg: Venous and Lymphatic Disorders. 2013;1:418-426
3. N Engl J Med 2013;369:1406-1415
4. N Engl J Med 2010;363:2499-2510
5. N Engl J Med 2013;368:699-708
6. Arteriosclerosis, thrombosis, and vascular biology 2015;35:1056-1065
7. J Thrombosis and Haemostasis 2013;11:756-760
New NOACs have largely replaced the need for vitamin K antagonists
The discovery of oral anticoagulants began in 1924, when Schofield linked the death of grazing cattle from internal hemorrhage to the consumption of spoiled sweet clover hay.1 It was not until 1941, however, while trying to understand this observation that Campbell and Link were able to identify the dicoumarol anticoagulant, which formed as a result of the spoiling process.2 Ultimately, after noting that vitamin K led to reversal of the dicoumarol effect, synthesis of the first class of oral anticoagulants, known as vitamin K antagonists (VKAs) began. Despite the numerous challenges associated with managing patients using this class of anticoagulants, VKAs have become the mainstay of oral anticoagulation therapy for the past 70 years. Over the past 5 years, however, new oral anticoagulants (NOACs) have emerged and are changing clinical practice. Mechanistically, these medications are targeted therapies and work as either direct thrombin inhibitors (dabigatran etexilate) or direct factor Xa inhibitors (rivaroxaban, apixaban, and edoxaban). Given their favorable pharmacologic design, NOACs have the potential to replace VKAs as they not only have an encouraging safety profile, but also are therapeutically equivalent or even superior to VKAs when used in certain patient populations.
Pharmacologic design
The targeted drug design of NOACs provides many pharmacologic advantages. Compared with VKAs, NOACs have a notably more predictable pharmacologic profile and relatively wide therapeutic window, which allows for fixed dosing, a rapid onset and offset, and fewer drug interactions.3 These characteristics eliminate the need for the routine dose monitoring and serial dose adjustments frequently associated with VKAs. Additionally, NOACs less commonly require bridging therapy with parenteral unfractionated heparin or low molecular weight heparins (LMWH) while awaiting therapeutic drug levels, as these levels are reached sooner and more predictably than with VKAs.4 As with any medication, however, appropriate consideration should to be given to specific patient populations such as those who are older or have significant comorbidities which may influence drug effect and clearance.
Lastly, it should be mentioned that the pharmacologic benefits of NOACs are not only beneficial from a patient perspective, but also from a health care systems standpoint as their use may provide an opportunity to deliver more cost-effective care. Specifically, economic models using available clinical trial data for stroke prevention in nonvalvular atrial fibrillation have shown that NOACs (apixaban, dabigatran, and rivaroxaban) are cost-effective alternatives when compared with warfarin.5 Although the results from such economic analyses are limited by the modeling assumptions they rely upon, these findings suggest that, at least initially, cost should not be used as a prohibitive reason for adopting these new therapeutics.
Patient selection
The decision to institute oral anticoagulation therapy depends on each patient’s individualized bleeding risk to benefit of ischemia prevention ratio. A major determinant of this ratio is the clinical indication for which anticoagulation is begun. Numerous phase III clinical trials have been conducted comparing the use of NOACs versus VKAs or placebos for the management of nonvalvular atrial fibrillation (AF), venous thromboembolism (VTE), and as adjunctive therapy for patients with acute coronary syndrome.6 Meta-analyses of randomized trials have shown the most significant benefit to be in patients with nonvalvular atrial fibrillation where NOACs have significant reductions in stroke, intracranial hemorrhage, and all-cause mortality, compared with warfarin while displaying variable effects with regards to gastrointestinal bleeding.6,7
In patients with VTE, NOACs have been found to have similar efficacy, compared with VKAs, with regard to the prevention of VTE or VTE-related death, and have been noted to have a better safety profile.6 Lastly, when studied as an adjunctive agent to dual antiplatelet therapy in patients with acute coronary syndrome, it should be noted that NOACs have been associated with an increased bleeding risk without a significant decrease in thrombosis risk.6 Taken together, these data suggest that the primary indication for instituting NOAC therapy should be considered strongly when deciding upon the class of anticoagulant to use.
Overcoming challenges
Since the introduction of NOACs, there has been concern over the lack of specific antidotes to therapy, especially when administered in patients with impaired clearance, a high likelihood of need for an urgent or emergent procedure, or those presenting with life-threatening bleeding complications. Most recently, however, interim analysis from clinical trial data has shown complete reversal of the direct thrombin inhibitor dabigatran with the humanized monocolonal antibody idarucizumab within minutes of administration in greater than 88% of patients studied.8 Similarly, agents such as a PER977 are currently in phase II clinical trials as they have been shown to form noncovalent hydrogen bonds and charge-charge interactions with oral factor Xa inhibitors as well as oral thrombin inhibitors leading to their reversal.9 Given these promising findings, it likely will not be long until reversal agents for NOACs become clinically available. Until that time, it is encouraging that the bleeding profile of these drugs has been found to be favorable, compared with VKAs, and their short half-life allows for a relatively expeditious natural reversal of their anticoagulant effect as the drug is eliminated.
Conclusions
Unlike the serendipitous path leading to the discovery of the first class of oral anticoagulants (VKAs), NOACs have been specifically designed to provide targeted anticoagulation and to address the shortcomings of VKAs. To this end, NOACs are becoming increasingly important in the management of patients with specific clinical conditions such as nonvalvular atrial fibrillation and venous thromboembolism where they have been shown to provide a larger net clinical benefit relative to the available alternatives. Furthermore, with economic analyses providing evidence that NOACs are cost-effective for the health care system and clinical trial results suggesting progress in the development of antidotes for reversal, it is likely that with growing experience, these agents will replace VKAs as the mainstay for prophylactic and therapeutic oral anticoagulation in targeted patient populations.
Madhukar S. Patel, MD, and Elliot L. Chaikof, MD, are from the department of surgery, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Boston. They reported having no conflicts of interest.
References
1. J Am Vet Med Assoc 1924;64:553-575
3. Hematology Am Soc Hematol Educ Program 2013;2013:464-470
4. Eur Heart J 2013;34:2094-2106
6. Nat Rev Cardiol 2014;11:693-703
8. N Engl J Med 2015;373:511-520
9. N Engl J Med 2014;371:2141-2142
What the doctor didn’t order: unintended consequences and pitfalls of NOACs
Recently, several new oral anticoagulants (NOACs) have gained FDA approval to replace warfarin, capturing the attention of popular media. These include dabigatran, rivaroxaban, apixaban, and edoxaban. Dabigatran targets activated factor II (factor IIa), while rivaroxaban, apixaban, and edoxaban target activated factor X (factor Xa). Easy to take with a once or twice daily pill, with no cumbersome monitoring, they represent a seemingly ideal treatment for the chronically anticoagulated patient. All agents are currently FDA approved in the United States for treatment of acute VTE and AF.
Dabigatran and edoxaban
Similar to warfarin, dabigatran and edoxaban require the use of a LMWH or UFH “bridge” when therapy is beginning, while rivaroxaban and apixaban are instituted as monotherapy without such a bridge. Dabigatran etexilate (PradaxaR, Boehringer Ingelheim) has the longest half-life of all of the NOACs at 12-17 hours, and this half-life is prolonged with increasing age and decreasing renal function.1 It is the only new agent which can be at least partially reversed with dialysis.2 Edoxaban (SavaysaR, Daiichi Sankyo) carries a boxed warning stating that this agent is less effective in AF patients with a creatinine clearance greater than 95 mL/min, and that kidney function should be assessed prior to starting treatment: Such patients have a greater risk of stroke, compared with similar patients treated with warfarin. Edoxaban is the only agent specifically tested at a lower dose in patients at significantly increased risk of bleeding complications (low body weight and/or decreased creatinine clearance).3
Rivaroxaban and apixaban
Rivaroxaban (XareltoR, Bayer and Janssen), and apixaban (EliquisR, Bristol Myers-Squibb), unique amongst the NOACs, have been tested for extended therapy of acute deep vein thrombosis after treatment of 6-12 months. They were found to result in a significant decrease in recurrent VTE without an increase in major bleeding, compared with placebo.4,5 Rivaroxaban has once-daily dosing and apixaban has twice-daily dosing; both are immediate monotherapy, making them quite convenient for patients. Apixaban is the only agent among the NOACs to have a slight decrease in gastrointestinal bleeding, compared with warfarin.6
Consequences and pitfalls with NOACs
Problems with these new drugs, which may diminish our current level of enthusiasm for these agents to totally replace warfarin, include the inability to reliably follow their levels or reverse their anticoagulant effects, the lack of data available on bridging when other procedures need to be performed, their short half-lives, and the lack of data on their anti-inflammatory effects. With regard to monitoring of anticoagulation, the International Society of Thrombosis and Hemostasis (ISTH) has published the times when it might be useful to obtain levels. These times include:
• When a patient is bleeding.
• Before surgery or an invasive procedure when the patient has taken the drug in the previous 24 hours, or longer if creatinine clearance (CrCl) is less than 50 mL min.
• Identification of subtherapeutic or supratherapeutic levels in patients taking other drugs that are known to affect pharmacokinetics.
• Identification of subtherapeutic or supratherapeutic levels in patients at body weight extremes.
• Patients with deteriorating renal function.
• During perioperative management.
• During reversal of anticoagulation.
• When there is suspicion of overdose.
• Assessment of compliance in patients suffering thrombotic events while on treatment.7
Currently, there exists no commercially available reversal agent for any of the NOACs, and existing reversal agents for traditional anticoagulants are of limited, if any, use. Drugs under development include agents for the factor Xa inhibitors and for the thrombin inhibitor. Until the time that specific reversal agents exist, supportive care is the mainstay of therapy. In cases of trauma or severe or life-threatening bleeding, administration of concentrated clotting factors (prothrombin complex concentrate) or dialysis (dabigatran only) may be utilized. However, data from large clinical trials are lacking. A recent study of 90 patients receiving an antibody directed against dabigatran has revealed that the anticoagulant effects of dabigatran were reversed safely within minutes of administration; however drug levels were not consistently suppressed at 24 hours in 20% of the cohort.8
Currently there are no national guidelines or large scale studies to guide bridging NOACs for procedures.
The relatively short half-life for these agents makes it likely that traditional bridging as is practiced for warfarin is not necessary.9 However, this represents a double-edged sword; withholding anticoagulation for two doses (such as if a patient becomes ill or a clinician is overly cautious around the time of a procedure) may leave the patient unprotected.
The final question with the new agents is their anti-inflammatory effects. We know that heparin and LMWH have significant pleiotropic effects that are not necessarily related to their anticoagulant effects. These effects are important in order to decrease the inflammatory nature of the thrombus and its effect on the vein wall. We do not know if the new oral agents have similar effects, as this has never fully been tested. In view of the fact that two of the agents are being used as monotherapy agents without any heparin/LMWH bridge, the anti-inflammatory properties of these new agents should be defined to make sure that such a bridge is not necessary.
So, in summary, although these agents have much to offer, there are many questions that remain to be addressed and answered before they totally replace traditional approaches to anticoagulation, in the realm of VTE. It must not be overlooked that despite all the benefits, they also each carry a risk of bleeding as they all target portions of the coagulation mechanism. We caution that, as with any “gift horse,” physicians should perhaps examine the data more closely and proceed with caution.
Thomas Wakefield, MD, is the Stanley Professor of Vascular Surgery; head, section of vascular surgery; and director, Samuel and Jean Frankel Cardiovascular Center. Andrea Obi, MD, is a vascular surgery fellow and Dawn Coleman MD, is the program director, section of vascular surgery, all at the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. They reported having no conflicts of interest.
References
1. N Engl J Med. 2009;361:2342-2352
2. J Vasc Surg: Venous and Lymphatic Disorders. 2013;1:418-426
3. N Engl J Med 2013;369:1406-1415
4. N Engl J Med 2010;363:2499-2510
5. N Engl J Med 2013;368:699-708
6. Arteriosclerosis, thrombosis, and vascular biology 2015;35:1056-1065
7. J Thrombosis and Haemostasis 2013;11:756-760
New NOACs have largely replaced the need for vitamin K antagonists
The discovery of oral anticoagulants began in 1924, when Schofield linked the death of grazing cattle from internal hemorrhage to the consumption of spoiled sweet clover hay.1 It was not until 1941, however, while trying to understand this observation that Campbell and Link were able to identify the dicoumarol anticoagulant, which formed as a result of the spoiling process.2 Ultimately, after noting that vitamin K led to reversal of the dicoumarol effect, synthesis of the first class of oral anticoagulants, known as vitamin K antagonists (VKAs) began. Despite the numerous challenges associated with managing patients using this class of anticoagulants, VKAs have become the mainstay of oral anticoagulation therapy for the past 70 years. Over the past 5 years, however, new oral anticoagulants (NOACs) have emerged and are changing clinical practice. Mechanistically, these medications are targeted therapies and work as either direct thrombin inhibitors (dabigatran etexilate) or direct factor Xa inhibitors (rivaroxaban, apixaban, and edoxaban). Given their favorable pharmacologic design, NOACs have the potential to replace VKAs as they not only have an encouraging safety profile, but also are therapeutically equivalent or even superior to VKAs when used in certain patient populations.
Pharmacologic design
The targeted drug design of NOACs provides many pharmacologic advantages. Compared with VKAs, NOACs have a notably more predictable pharmacologic profile and relatively wide therapeutic window, which allows for fixed dosing, a rapid onset and offset, and fewer drug interactions.3 These characteristics eliminate the need for the routine dose monitoring and serial dose adjustments frequently associated with VKAs. Additionally, NOACs less commonly require bridging therapy with parenteral unfractionated heparin or low molecular weight heparins (LMWH) while awaiting therapeutic drug levels, as these levels are reached sooner and more predictably than with VKAs.4 As with any medication, however, appropriate consideration should to be given to specific patient populations such as those who are older or have significant comorbidities which may influence drug effect and clearance.
Lastly, it should be mentioned that the pharmacologic benefits of NOACs are not only beneficial from a patient perspective, but also from a health care systems standpoint as their use may provide an opportunity to deliver more cost-effective care. Specifically, economic models using available clinical trial data for stroke prevention in nonvalvular atrial fibrillation have shown that NOACs (apixaban, dabigatran, and rivaroxaban) are cost-effective alternatives when compared with warfarin.5 Although the results from such economic analyses are limited by the modeling assumptions they rely upon, these findings suggest that, at least initially, cost should not be used as a prohibitive reason for adopting these new therapeutics.
Patient selection
The decision to institute oral anticoagulation therapy depends on each patient’s individualized bleeding risk to benefit of ischemia prevention ratio. A major determinant of this ratio is the clinical indication for which anticoagulation is begun. Numerous phase III clinical trials have been conducted comparing the use of NOACs versus VKAs or placebos for the management of nonvalvular atrial fibrillation (AF), venous thromboembolism (VTE), and as adjunctive therapy for patients with acute coronary syndrome.6 Meta-analyses of randomized trials have shown the most significant benefit to be in patients with nonvalvular atrial fibrillation where NOACs have significant reductions in stroke, intracranial hemorrhage, and all-cause mortality, compared with warfarin while displaying variable effects with regards to gastrointestinal bleeding.6,7
In patients with VTE, NOACs have been found to have similar efficacy, compared with VKAs, with regard to the prevention of VTE or VTE-related death, and have been noted to have a better safety profile.6 Lastly, when studied as an adjunctive agent to dual antiplatelet therapy in patients with acute coronary syndrome, it should be noted that NOACs have been associated with an increased bleeding risk without a significant decrease in thrombosis risk.6 Taken together, these data suggest that the primary indication for instituting NOAC therapy should be considered strongly when deciding upon the class of anticoagulant to use.
Overcoming challenges
Since the introduction of NOACs, there has been concern over the lack of specific antidotes to therapy, especially when administered in patients with impaired clearance, a high likelihood of need for an urgent or emergent procedure, or those presenting with life-threatening bleeding complications. Most recently, however, interim analysis from clinical trial data has shown complete reversal of the direct thrombin inhibitor dabigatran with the humanized monocolonal antibody idarucizumab within minutes of administration in greater than 88% of patients studied.8 Similarly, agents such as a PER977 are currently in phase II clinical trials as they have been shown to form noncovalent hydrogen bonds and charge-charge interactions with oral factor Xa inhibitors as well as oral thrombin inhibitors leading to their reversal.9 Given these promising findings, it likely will not be long until reversal agents for NOACs become clinically available. Until that time, it is encouraging that the bleeding profile of these drugs has been found to be favorable, compared with VKAs, and their short half-life allows for a relatively expeditious natural reversal of their anticoagulant effect as the drug is eliminated.
Conclusions
Unlike the serendipitous path leading to the discovery of the first class of oral anticoagulants (VKAs), NOACs have been specifically designed to provide targeted anticoagulation and to address the shortcomings of VKAs. To this end, NOACs are becoming increasingly important in the management of patients with specific clinical conditions such as nonvalvular atrial fibrillation and venous thromboembolism where they have been shown to provide a larger net clinical benefit relative to the available alternatives. Furthermore, with economic analyses providing evidence that NOACs are cost-effective for the health care system and clinical trial results suggesting progress in the development of antidotes for reversal, it is likely that with growing experience, these agents will replace VKAs as the mainstay for prophylactic and therapeutic oral anticoagulation in targeted patient populations.
Madhukar S. Patel, MD, and Elliot L. Chaikof, MD, are from the department of surgery, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Boston. They reported having no conflicts of interest.
References
1. J Am Vet Med Assoc 1924;64:553-575
3. Hematology Am Soc Hematol Educ Program 2013;2013:464-470
4. Eur Heart J 2013;34:2094-2106
6. Nat Rev Cardiol 2014;11:693-703
8. N Engl J Med 2015;373:511-520
9. N Engl J Med 2014;371:2141-2142
What the doctor didn’t order: unintended consequences and pitfalls of NOACs
Recently, several new oral anticoagulants (NOACs) have gained FDA approval to replace warfarin, capturing the attention of popular media. These include dabigatran, rivaroxaban, apixaban, and edoxaban. Dabigatran targets activated factor II (factor IIa), while rivaroxaban, apixaban, and edoxaban target activated factor X (factor Xa). Easy to take with a once or twice daily pill, with no cumbersome monitoring, they represent a seemingly ideal treatment for the chronically anticoagulated patient. All agents are currently FDA approved in the United States for treatment of acute VTE and AF.
Dabigatran and edoxaban
Similar to warfarin, dabigatran and edoxaban require the use of a LMWH or UFH “bridge” when therapy is beginning, while rivaroxaban and apixaban are instituted as monotherapy without such a bridge. Dabigatran etexilate (PradaxaR, Boehringer Ingelheim) has the longest half-life of all of the NOACs at 12-17 hours, and this half-life is prolonged with increasing age and decreasing renal function.1 It is the only new agent which can be at least partially reversed with dialysis.2 Edoxaban (SavaysaR, Daiichi Sankyo) carries a boxed warning stating that this agent is less effective in AF patients with a creatinine clearance greater than 95 mL/min, and that kidney function should be assessed prior to starting treatment: Such patients have a greater risk of stroke, compared with similar patients treated with warfarin. Edoxaban is the only agent specifically tested at a lower dose in patients at significantly increased risk of bleeding complications (low body weight and/or decreased creatinine clearance).3
Rivaroxaban and apixaban
Rivaroxaban (XareltoR, Bayer and Janssen), and apixaban (EliquisR, Bristol Myers-Squibb), unique amongst the NOACs, have been tested for extended therapy of acute deep vein thrombosis after treatment of 6-12 months. They were found to result in a significant decrease in recurrent VTE without an increase in major bleeding, compared with placebo.4,5 Rivaroxaban has once-daily dosing and apixaban has twice-daily dosing; both are immediate monotherapy, making them quite convenient for patients. Apixaban is the only agent among the NOACs to have a slight decrease in gastrointestinal bleeding, compared with warfarin.6
Consequences and pitfalls with NOACs
Problems with these new drugs, which may diminish our current level of enthusiasm for these agents to totally replace warfarin, include the inability to reliably follow their levels or reverse their anticoagulant effects, the lack of data available on bridging when other procedures need to be performed, their short half-lives, and the lack of data on their anti-inflammatory effects. With regard to monitoring of anticoagulation, the International Society of Thrombosis and Hemostasis (ISTH) has published the times when it might be useful to obtain levels. These times include:
• When a patient is bleeding.
• Before surgery or an invasive procedure when the patient has taken the drug in the previous 24 hours, or longer if creatinine clearance (CrCl) is less than 50 mL min.
• Identification of subtherapeutic or supratherapeutic levels in patients taking other drugs that are known to affect pharmacokinetics.
• Identification of subtherapeutic or supratherapeutic levels in patients at body weight extremes.
• Patients with deteriorating renal function.
• During perioperative management.
• During reversal of anticoagulation.
• When there is suspicion of overdose.
• Assessment of compliance in patients suffering thrombotic events while on treatment.7
Currently, there exists no commercially available reversal agent for any of the NOACs, and existing reversal agents for traditional anticoagulants are of limited, if any, use. Drugs under development include agents for the factor Xa inhibitors and for the thrombin inhibitor. Until the time that specific reversal agents exist, supportive care is the mainstay of therapy. In cases of trauma or severe or life-threatening bleeding, administration of concentrated clotting factors (prothrombin complex concentrate) or dialysis (dabigatran only) may be utilized. However, data from large clinical trials are lacking. A recent study of 90 patients receiving an antibody directed against dabigatran has revealed that the anticoagulant effects of dabigatran were reversed safely within minutes of administration; however drug levels were not consistently suppressed at 24 hours in 20% of the cohort.8
Currently there are no national guidelines or large scale studies to guide bridging NOACs for procedures.
The relatively short half-life for these agents makes it likely that traditional bridging as is practiced for warfarin is not necessary.9 However, this represents a double-edged sword; withholding anticoagulation for two doses (such as if a patient becomes ill or a clinician is overly cautious around the time of a procedure) may leave the patient unprotected.
The final question with the new agents is their anti-inflammatory effects. We know that heparin and LMWH have significant pleiotropic effects that are not necessarily related to their anticoagulant effects. These effects are important in order to decrease the inflammatory nature of the thrombus and its effect on the vein wall. We do not know if the new oral agents have similar effects, as this has never fully been tested. In view of the fact that two of the agents are being used as monotherapy agents without any heparin/LMWH bridge, the anti-inflammatory properties of these new agents should be defined to make sure that such a bridge is not necessary.
So, in summary, although these agents have much to offer, there are many questions that remain to be addressed and answered before they totally replace traditional approaches to anticoagulation, in the realm of VTE. It must not be overlooked that despite all the benefits, they also each carry a risk of bleeding as they all target portions of the coagulation mechanism. We caution that, as with any “gift horse,” physicians should perhaps examine the data more closely and proceed with caution.
Thomas Wakefield, MD, is the Stanley Professor of Vascular Surgery; head, section of vascular surgery; and director, Samuel and Jean Frankel Cardiovascular Center. Andrea Obi, MD, is a vascular surgery fellow and Dawn Coleman MD, is the program director, section of vascular surgery, all at the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. They reported having no conflicts of interest.
References
1. N Engl J Med. 2009;361:2342-2352
2. J Vasc Surg: Venous and Lymphatic Disorders. 2013;1:418-426
3. N Engl J Med 2013;369:1406-1415
4. N Engl J Med 2010;363:2499-2510
5. N Engl J Med 2013;368:699-708
6. Arteriosclerosis, thrombosis, and vascular biology 2015;35:1056-1065
7. J Thrombosis and Haemostasis 2013;11:756-760
Commentary: INR instability in the NOAC era
Progress in the development of new oral anticoagulants (NOACs), as well as agents for their reversal, has lowered the threshold to use these therapeutics as first line agents for the management of nonvalvular atrial fibrillation and venous thromboembolism.1,2 Despite this increase in adoption, however, debate persists as to whether patients chronically maintained on vitamin K antagonists (VKAs), such as warfarin, should be switched to NOACs. The recently published research letter by Pokorney et al. assessed the stability of international normalized ratios (INRs) in patients on long-term warfarin therapy in order to address this question.3
Specifically, prospective registry data from 3,749 patients with at least three INR values in the first 6 months of therapy as well as six or more in the following year were included. Patients were deemed stable if 80% or more of their INRs were in a therapeutic range defined as an INR between 2 and 3.3 During the initiation period, only one in four patients taking warfarin had a stable INR.3 Furthermore, stability in the first 6 months was found to have limited ability to predict stability in the subsequent year (concordance index of 0.61). With regard to time in therapeutic range (TTR), only 32% of patients had a TTR of greater than 80% during the first 6 months with less than half (42%) of these patients able to maintain this in the following year.
Findings from Pokorney et al. add to the growing body of literature demonstrating the difficulty of achieving and maintaining a therapeutic INR while on warfarin therapy.4-7 Clinically, these findings are important, as deviations from TTR have been shown to be associated with increased risk of bleeding and thrombosis as well as increased health care costs.8-10 Mechanistically, patient factors such as differences in vitamin K consumption, comorbid conditions, drug-drug interactions, and medication compliance, as well as genetic differences that impact drug metabolism undoubtedly contribute to the variation of INR noted in patients on warfarin therapy.
Attempts to improve stability have included the administration of low-dose oral vitamin K. However, recent data from a multicenter randomized control trial suggests that while such therapy may help to decrease extreme variations in INR, it does not lead to an increased TTR.11 Furthermore, while significant work has been conducted in identifying specific gene variants, such as CYP2C9 and VKORC, which encode cytochrome P450 and vitamin K epoxide reductase enzymes, respectively, economic analyses suggest that testing for these gene variants would not be cost-effective.12 Additionally, clinical prediction tools, which incorporate important patient factors to help guide anticoagulation explain less than 10% of TTR variability.4
Nonetheless, some caution is warranted in the interpretation of the results reported by Pokorney and his colleagues. The proportion of registry patients treated with warfarin who had a low TTR was much lower than that previously reported by the pivotal U.S. trials of NOACs (55%-68%) and significantly lower than the results of a recent nationwide Swedish registry involving 40,449 patients.13
In the Swedish registry, the mean individual TTR was 70% with more than half the patients having a TTR of 70% or more, emphasizing the importance of health care system effects. Moreover, regardless of whether a patient is on warfarin or a NOAC, patients with a lower TTR have higher rates of diabetes, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, heart failure, and renal failure, which may contribute to the need for additional therapies that may influence TTR.
For example, INR may be increased by ciprofloxacin or omeprazole when taken with warfarin, and CYP3A4 and P-glycoprotein (P-gp) inducers and inhibitors can result in an increased or decreased anticoagulation effect when used with NOACs. Recent reports have also highlighted variability in the safety of NOACs, particularly among patients with renal or liver insufficiency, African Americans, or patients with a prior history of GI bleeding.14-16 For these subgroups, determining NOAC activity to improve clinical safety of these agents is difficult.
PT or INR testing is largely insensitive or otherwise highly variable and the blood draw time relative to the most recent dose significantly influences the measured level of anti-Xa activity. Importantly, socioeconomic factors and family support systems also influence TTR, as important determinants of access to needed drugs or the ability to sustain related costs over time.
Taken together, prior INR stability on warfarin therapy does not ensure continued stability and, as a consequence, long-term warfarin therapy requires close monitoring in order to remain effective. To this end, further development of point-of-care coagulometers for self-testing and self-management, which have been found to be acceptable and preferred by patients, should be pursued.17 Similarly, attempts to decrease INR variability through research on optimizing computer assisted dosing programs remains warranted.18 NOACs offer an advantage over warfarin therapy in that they have a more predictable pharmacokinetic profile, which precludes the need for routine monitoring of anticoagulation parameters. However, many of the same factors, which influence TTR for warfarin do so for NOACs; NOACs have increased bleeding risk in comparison to warfarin for a number of demographic groups; and the high cost of NOACs may influence patient compliance.
Accordingly, until further data is available, consideration of the conversion of a patient on warfarin with a low TTR to a NOAC should be individualized.
Madhukar S. Patel, MD, is a general surgeon at the Department of Surgery, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, and Elliot L. Chaikof, MD, is Surgeon-in-Chief, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, and Chairman, Roberta and Stephen R. Weiner Department of Surgery, Johnson and Johnson Professor of Surgery, Harvard Medical School. Dr. Chaikof is also an associate editor for Vascular Specialist. They have no relevant conflicts.
References
2. Nat Rev Cardiol. 2014;11:693-703.
5. J Thromb Haemost. 2010;8:2182-91.
6. Thromb Haemost. 2009;101:552-6.
7. Am J Cardiovasc Drugs. 2015;15:205-11.
8. Circ Cardiovasc Qual Outcomes. 2008;1:84-91.
10. J Med Econ. 2015;18:333-40.
11. Thromb Haemost. 2016;116:480-5.
12. Ann Intern Med. 2009;150:73-83.
13. JAMA Cardiol. 2016;1:172-80.
14. N Engl J Med. 2013;369:2093-104.
15. JAMA Intern Med. 2015;175:18-24.
16. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2014;63:891-900.
Progress in the development of new oral anticoagulants (NOACs), as well as agents for their reversal, has lowered the threshold to use these therapeutics as first line agents for the management of nonvalvular atrial fibrillation and venous thromboembolism.1,2 Despite this increase in adoption, however, debate persists as to whether patients chronically maintained on vitamin K antagonists (VKAs), such as warfarin, should be switched to NOACs. The recently published research letter by Pokorney et al. assessed the stability of international normalized ratios (INRs) in patients on long-term warfarin therapy in order to address this question.3
Specifically, prospective registry data from 3,749 patients with at least three INR values in the first 6 months of therapy as well as six or more in the following year were included. Patients were deemed stable if 80% or more of their INRs were in a therapeutic range defined as an INR between 2 and 3.3 During the initiation period, only one in four patients taking warfarin had a stable INR.3 Furthermore, stability in the first 6 months was found to have limited ability to predict stability in the subsequent year (concordance index of 0.61). With regard to time in therapeutic range (TTR), only 32% of patients had a TTR of greater than 80% during the first 6 months with less than half (42%) of these patients able to maintain this in the following year.
Findings from Pokorney et al. add to the growing body of literature demonstrating the difficulty of achieving and maintaining a therapeutic INR while on warfarin therapy.4-7 Clinically, these findings are important, as deviations from TTR have been shown to be associated with increased risk of bleeding and thrombosis as well as increased health care costs.8-10 Mechanistically, patient factors such as differences in vitamin K consumption, comorbid conditions, drug-drug interactions, and medication compliance, as well as genetic differences that impact drug metabolism undoubtedly contribute to the variation of INR noted in patients on warfarin therapy.
Attempts to improve stability have included the administration of low-dose oral vitamin K. However, recent data from a multicenter randomized control trial suggests that while such therapy may help to decrease extreme variations in INR, it does not lead to an increased TTR.11 Furthermore, while significant work has been conducted in identifying specific gene variants, such as CYP2C9 and VKORC, which encode cytochrome P450 and vitamin K epoxide reductase enzymes, respectively, economic analyses suggest that testing for these gene variants would not be cost-effective.12 Additionally, clinical prediction tools, which incorporate important patient factors to help guide anticoagulation explain less than 10% of TTR variability.4
Nonetheless, some caution is warranted in the interpretation of the results reported by Pokorney and his colleagues. The proportion of registry patients treated with warfarin who had a low TTR was much lower than that previously reported by the pivotal U.S. trials of NOACs (55%-68%) and significantly lower than the results of a recent nationwide Swedish registry involving 40,449 patients.13
In the Swedish registry, the mean individual TTR was 70% with more than half the patients having a TTR of 70% or more, emphasizing the importance of health care system effects. Moreover, regardless of whether a patient is on warfarin or a NOAC, patients with a lower TTR have higher rates of diabetes, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, heart failure, and renal failure, which may contribute to the need for additional therapies that may influence TTR.
For example, INR may be increased by ciprofloxacin or omeprazole when taken with warfarin, and CYP3A4 and P-glycoprotein (P-gp) inducers and inhibitors can result in an increased or decreased anticoagulation effect when used with NOACs. Recent reports have also highlighted variability in the safety of NOACs, particularly among patients with renal or liver insufficiency, African Americans, or patients with a prior history of GI bleeding.14-16 For these subgroups, determining NOAC activity to improve clinical safety of these agents is difficult.
PT or INR testing is largely insensitive or otherwise highly variable and the blood draw time relative to the most recent dose significantly influences the measured level of anti-Xa activity. Importantly, socioeconomic factors and family support systems also influence TTR, as important determinants of access to needed drugs or the ability to sustain related costs over time.
Taken together, prior INR stability on warfarin therapy does not ensure continued stability and, as a consequence, long-term warfarin therapy requires close monitoring in order to remain effective. To this end, further development of point-of-care coagulometers for self-testing and self-management, which have been found to be acceptable and preferred by patients, should be pursued.17 Similarly, attempts to decrease INR variability through research on optimizing computer assisted dosing programs remains warranted.18 NOACs offer an advantage over warfarin therapy in that they have a more predictable pharmacokinetic profile, which precludes the need for routine monitoring of anticoagulation parameters. However, many of the same factors, which influence TTR for warfarin do so for NOACs; NOACs have increased bleeding risk in comparison to warfarin for a number of demographic groups; and the high cost of NOACs may influence patient compliance.
Accordingly, until further data is available, consideration of the conversion of a patient on warfarin with a low TTR to a NOAC should be individualized.
Madhukar S. Patel, MD, is a general surgeon at the Department of Surgery, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, and Elliot L. Chaikof, MD, is Surgeon-in-Chief, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, and Chairman, Roberta and Stephen R. Weiner Department of Surgery, Johnson and Johnson Professor of Surgery, Harvard Medical School. Dr. Chaikof is also an associate editor for Vascular Specialist. They have no relevant conflicts.
References
2. Nat Rev Cardiol. 2014;11:693-703.
5. J Thromb Haemost. 2010;8:2182-91.
6. Thromb Haemost. 2009;101:552-6.
7. Am J Cardiovasc Drugs. 2015;15:205-11.
8. Circ Cardiovasc Qual Outcomes. 2008;1:84-91.
10. J Med Econ. 2015;18:333-40.
11. Thromb Haemost. 2016;116:480-5.
12. Ann Intern Med. 2009;150:73-83.
13. JAMA Cardiol. 2016;1:172-80.
14. N Engl J Med. 2013;369:2093-104.
15. JAMA Intern Med. 2015;175:18-24.
16. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2014;63:891-900.
Progress in the development of new oral anticoagulants (NOACs), as well as agents for their reversal, has lowered the threshold to use these therapeutics as first line agents for the management of nonvalvular atrial fibrillation and venous thromboembolism.1,2 Despite this increase in adoption, however, debate persists as to whether patients chronically maintained on vitamin K antagonists (VKAs), such as warfarin, should be switched to NOACs. The recently published research letter by Pokorney et al. assessed the stability of international normalized ratios (INRs) in patients on long-term warfarin therapy in order to address this question.3
Specifically, prospective registry data from 3,749 patients with at least three INR values in the first 6 months of therapy as well as six or more in the following year were included. Patients were deemed stable if 80% or more of their INRs were in a therapeutic range defined as an INR between 2 and 3.3 During the initiation period, only one in four patients taking warfarin had a stable INR.3 Furthermore, stability in the first 6 months was found to have limited ability to predict stability in the subsequent year (concordance index of 0.61). With regard to time in therapeutic range (TTR), only 32% of patients had a TTR of greater than 80% during the first 6 months with less than half (42%) of these patients able to maintain this in the following year.
Findings from Pokorney et al. add to the growing body of literature demonstrating the difficulty of achieving and maintaining a therapeutic INR while on warfarin therapy.4-7 Clinically, these findings are important, as deviations from TTR have been shown to be associated with increased risk of bleeding and thrombosis as well as increased health care costs.8-10 Mechanistically, patient factors such as differences in vitamin K consumption, comorbid conditions, drug-drug interactions, and medication compliance, as well as genetic differences that impact drug metabolism undoubtedly contribute to the variation of INR noted in patients on warfarin therapy.
Attempts to improve stability have included the administration of low-dose oral vitamin K. However, recent data from a multicenter randomized control trial suggests that while such therapy may help to decrease extreme variations in INR, it does not lead to an increased TTR.11 Furthermore, while significant work has been conducted in identifying specific gene variants, such as CYP2C9 and VKORC, which encode cytochrome P450 and vitamin K epoxide reductase enzymes, respectively, economic analyses suggest that testing for these gene variants would not be cost-effective.12 Additionally, clinical prediction tools, which incorporate important patient factors to help guide anticoagulation explain less than 10% of TTR variability.4
Nonetheless, some caution is warranted in the interpretation of the results reported by Pokorney and his colleagues. The proportion of registry patients treated with warfarin who had a low TTR was much lower than that previously reported by the pivotal U.S. trials of NOACs (55%-68%) and significantly lower than the results of a recent nationwide Swedish registry involving 40,449 patients.13
In the Swedish registry, the mean individual TTR was 70% with more than half the patients having a TTR of 70% or more, emphasizing the importance of health care system effects. Moreover, regardless of whether a patient is on warfarin or a NOAC, patients with a lower TTR have higher rates of diabetes, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, heart failure, and renal failure, which may contribute to the need for additional therapies that may influence TTR.
For example, INR may be increased by ciprofloxacin or omeprazole when taken with warfarin, and CYP3A4 and P-glycoprotein (P-gp) inducers and inhibitors can result in an increased or decreased anticoagulation effect when used with NOACs. Recent reports have also highlighted variability in the safety of NOACs, particularly among patients with renal or liver insufficiency, African Americans, or patients with a prior history of GI bleeding.14-16 For these subgroups, determining NOAC activity to improve clinical safety of these agents is difficult.
PT or INR testing is largely insensitive or otherwise highly variable and the blood draw time relative to the most recent dose significantly influences the measured level of anti-Xa activity. Importantly, socioeconomic factors and family support systems also influence TTR, as important determinants of access to needed drugs or the ability to sustain related costs over time.
Taken together, prior INR stability on warfarin therapy does not ensure continued stability and, as a consequence, long-term warfarin therapy requires close monitoring in order to remain effective. To this end, further development of point-of-care coagulometers for self-testing and self-management, which have been found to be acceptable and preferred by patients, should be pursued.17 Similarly, attempts to decrease INR variability through research on optimizing computer assisted dosing programs remains warranted.18 NOACs offer an advantage over warfarin therapy in that they have a more predictable pharmacokinetic profile, which precludes the need for routine monitoring of anticoagulation parameters. However, many of the same factors, which influence TTR for warfarin do so for NOACs; NOACs have increased bleeding risk in comparison to warfarin for a number of demographic groups; and the high cost of NOACs may influence patient compliance.
Accordingly, until further data is available, consideration of the conversion of a patient on warfarin with a low TTR to a NOAC should be individualized.
Madhukar S. Patel, MD, is a general surgeon at the Department of Surgery, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, and Elliot L. Chaikof, MD, is Surgeon-in-Chief, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, and Chairman, Roberta and Stephen R. Weiner Department of Surgery, Johnson and Johnson Professor of Surgery, Harvard Medical School. Dr. Chaikof is also an associate editor for Vascular Specialist. They have no relevant conflicts.
References
2. Nat Rev Cardiol. 2014;11:693-703.
5. J Thromb Haemost. 2010;8:2182-91.
6. Thromb Haemost. 2009;101:552-6.
7. Am J Cardiovasc Drugs. 2015;15:205-11.
8. Circ Cardiovasc Qual Outcomes. 2008;1:84-91.
10. J Med Econ. 2015;18:333-40.
11. Thromb Haemost. 2016;116:480-5.
12. Ann Intern Med. 2009;150:73-83.
13. JAMA Cardiol. 2016;1:172-80.
14. N Engl J Med. 2013;369:2093-104.
15. JAMA Intern Med. 2015;175:18-24.
16. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2014;63:891-900.
