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The power of the turkey sandwich
A relatively high proportion of pediatric visits to the emergency department are related to psychiatric symptoms, oftentimes with suicidal or violent ideation.1 Given that pediatric emergencies related to psychiatric symptoms are on the increase, clinicians frequently are called to assess children and adolescents with symptoms of aggression and violence. Management of these cases can be tricky.
Case presentation
Henry is a 6-year-old boy with mild developmental delays and possible anxiety who was brought to the emergency department because of concerns on the bus. For about a month, Henry, who is repeating his kindergarten year, had been struggling with getting on and off the bus and with other transitions at school. These struggles had been attributed to anxiety. He was started on sertraline and the dose was increased about 2 weeks later. Soon thereafter he complained of stomach upset with the sertraline, refused to take the medicine, and had a very hard day at school. He required one-on-one attention for unsafe behavior most of that day, and he missed most of his lunch and recess. His school support team was able to get him onto the bus at the end of the day, but he refused to get off of the bus at home. He became violent with the bus driver, kicking and biting him until the police were called. The police called EMS and he was brought into the emergency department after fighting to get on the transport stretcher. He was eventually brought into a secure exam room in the emergency department, but was unable to be fully assessed because he would only make animal noises when approached. His father already had been called, but was unable to calm him down. The emergency department physician was unable to approach Henry because he began swinging at him as soon as the physician entered the room. An emergent psychiatric consultation was called to determine what medication to give to Henry to calm him down and to assess him for possible psychosis.
Case discussion
It sounds like Henry was having a severe tantrum exacerbated by a number of factors. First of all, this is a child who struggles with transitions. That day had been loaded with transitions, eventually leading him to be in an unfamiliar environment with many unfamiliar faces. Even the familiar face of his father wasn’t enough to help because he was overly stimulated and scared. Next, he was probably hungry. We know for certain that he missed lunch, and several hours into his presentation there were no breaks to deal with his basic needs. The first approach to assessment of aggressive behavior in the emergency setting is to try to care for the basic needs of the individual to deescalate the situation. Finally, he had recently been started on sertraline, a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor. He had been having some dyspepsia and/or nausea with the sertraline, leading to his having missed some doses. Some children and adolescents have a discontinuation syndrome, which can be more severe in younger children and with medications that have shorter half-lives.2 In Henry’s case, a missed dose or two can be enough to trigger this discontinuation response leading to more aggressive behavior.
Case follow-up
The child and adolescent psychiatrist called to the case received a history from the primary team. When he started to try to talk with the parent outside of the room, the child became upset. He was able to gather the information that Henry also had skipped breakfast. In an attempt to calm the patient down, the psychiatrist addressed Henry using a nonjudgmental, nonconfrontational, collaborative approach, incorporating play. Henry responded to this approach and allowed the psychiatrist to ask a few questions about basic needs, and admitted that he was hungry. He was offered a turkey sandwich, which was rapidly ingested. The tantrum slowly subsided. Within about 30 minutes (and with some more food), the child was able to sit on his parent’s lap and finish the interview. The decision was made to have him follow up with his primary care provider to change to an SSRI with a longer half-life, such as fluoxetine, as he did seem to be experiencing some discontinuation even after missing just a dose or two of sertraline.
When dealing with emergent, aggressive behavior, food isn’t always the best medicine, but sometimes it is. Environmental barriers to the child’s regaining control include hunger, thirst, a full bladder, constipation, or other pain. Attending to these issues first sometimes can help avoid sedating medications, which can prolong emergency visits and lead to unwelcome side effects.
Dr. Althoff is associate professor of psychiatry, psychology, and pediatrics at the University of Vermont, Burlington. He is director of the division of behavioral genetics and conducts research on the development of self-regulation in children. Email him at [email protected].
References
1. Pediatrics. 2011 May;127(5):e1356-66.
2. J Can Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2011 Feb;20(1):60-7.
A relatively high proportion of pediatric visits to the emergency department are related to psychiatric symptoms, oftentimes with suicidal or violent ideation.1 Given that pediatric emergencies related to psychiatric symptoms are on the increase, clinicians frequently are called to assess children and adolescents with symptoms of aggression and violence. Management of these cases can be tricky.
Case presentation
Henry is a 6-year-old boy with mild developmental delays and possible anxiety who was brought to the emergency department because of concerns on the bus. For about a month, Henry, who is repeating his kindergarten year, had been struggling with getting on and off the bus and with other transitions at school. These struggles had been attributed to anxiety. He was started on sertraline and the dose was increased about 2 weeks later. Soon thereafter he complained of stomach upset with the sertraline, refused to take the medicine, and had a very hard day at school. He required one-on-one attention for unsafe behavior most of that day, and he missed most of his lunch and recess. His school support team was able to get him onto the bus at the end of the day, but he refused to get off of the bus at home. He became violent with the bus driver, kicking and biting him until the police were called. The police called EMS and he was brought into the emergency department after fighting to get on the transport stretcher. He was eventually brought into a secure exam room in the emergency department, but was unable to be fully assessed because he would only make animal noises when approached. His father already had been called, but was unable to calm him down. The emergency department physician was unable to approach Henry because he began swinging at him as soon as the physician entered the room. An emergent psychiatric consultation was called to determine what medication to give to Henry to calm him down and to assess him for possible psychosis.
Case discussion
It sounds like Henry was having a severe tantrum exacerbated by a number of factors. First of all, this is a child who struggles with transitions. That day had been loaded with transitions, eventually leading him to be in an unfamiliar environment with many unfamiliar faces. Even the familiar face of his father wasn’t enough to help because he was overly stimulated and scared. Next, he was probably hungry. We know for certain that he missed lunch, and several hours into his presentation there were no breaks to deal with his basic needs. The first approach to assessment of aggressive behavior in the emergency setting is to try to care for the basic needs of the individual to deescalate the situation. Finally, he had recently been started on sertraline, a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor. He had been having some dyspepsia and/or nausea with the sertraline, leading to his having missed some doses. Some children and adolescents have a discontinuation syndrome, which can be more severe in younger children and with medications that have shorter half-lives.2 In Henry’s case, a missed dose or two can be enough to trigger this discontinuation response leading to more aggressive behavior.
Case follow-up
The child and adolescent psychiatrist called to the case received a history from the primary team. When he started to try to talk with the parent outside of the room, the child became upset. He was able to gather the information that Henry also had skipped breakfast. In an attempt to calm the patient down, the psychiatrist addressed Henry using a nonjudgmental, nonconfrontational, collaborative approach, incorporating play. Henry responded to this approach and allowed the psychiatrist to ask a few questions about basic needs, and admitted that he was hungry. He was offered a turkey sandwich, which was rapidly ingested. The tantrum slowly subsided. Within about 30 minutes (and with some more food), the child was able to sit on his parent’s lap and finish the interview. The decision was made to have him follow up with his primary care provider to change to an SSRI with a longer half-life, such as fluoxetine, as he did seem to be experiencing some discontinuation even after missing just a dose or two of sertraline.
When dealing with emergent, aggressive behavior, food isn’t always the best medicine, but sometimes it is. Environmental barriers to the child’s regaining control include hunger, thirst, a full bladder, constipation, or other pain. Attending to these issues first sometimes can help avoid sedating medications, which can prolong emergency visits and lead to unwelcome side effects.
Dr. Althoff is associate professor of psychiatry, psychology, and pediatrics at the University of Vermont, Burlington. He is director of the division of behavioral genetics and conducts research on the development of self-regulation in children. Email him at [email protected].
References
1. Pediatrics. 2011 May;127(5):e1356-66.
2. J Can Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2011 Feb;20(1):60-7.
A relatively high proportion of pediatric visits to the emergency department are related to psychiatric symptoms, oftentimes with suicidal or violent ideation.1 Given that pediatric emergencies related to psychiatric symptoms are on the increase, clinicians frequently are called to assess children and adolescents with symptoms of aggression and violence. Management of these cases can be tricky.
Case presentation
Henry is a 6-year-old boy with mild developmental delays and possible anxiety who was brought to the emergency department because of concerns on the bus. For about a month, Henry, who is repeating his kindergarten year, had been struggling with getting on and off the bus and with other transitions at school. These struggles had been attributed to anxiety. He was started on sertraline and the dose was increased about 2 weeks later. Soon thereafter he complained of stomach upset with the sertraline, refused to take the medicine, and had a very hard day at school. He required one-on-one attention for unsafe behavior most of that day, and he missed most of his lunch and recess. His school support team was able to get him onto the bus at the end of the day, but he refused to get off of the bus at home. He became violent with the bus driver, kicking and biting him until the police were called. The police called EMS and he was brought into the emergency department after fighting to get on the transport stretcher. He was eventually brought into a secure exam room in the emergency department, but was unable to be fully assessed because he would only make animal noises when approached. His father already had been called, but was unable to calm him down. The emergency department physician was unable to approach Henry because he began swinging at him as soon as the physician entered the room. An emergent psychiatric consultation was called to determine what medication to give to Henry to calm him down and to assess him for possible psychosis.
Case discussion
It sounds like Henry was having a severe tantrum exacerbated by a number of factors. First of all, this is a child who struggles with transitions. That day had been loaded with transitions, eventually leading him to be in an unfamiliar environment with many unfamiliar faces. Even the familiar face of his father wasn’t enough to help because he was overly stimulated and scared. Next, he was probably hungry. We know for certain that he missed lunch, and several hours into his presentation there were no breaks to deal with his basic needs. The first approach to assessment of aggressive behavior in the emergency setting is to try to care for the basic needs of the individual to deescalate the situation. Finally, he had recently been started on sertraline, a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor. He had been having some dyspepsia and/or nausea with the sertraline, leading to his having missed some doses. Some children and adolescents have a discontinuation syndrome, which can be more severe in younger children and with medications that have shorter half-lives.2 In Henry’s case, a missed dose or two can be enough to trigger this discontinuation response leading to more aggressive behavior.
Case follow-up
The child and adolescent psychiatrist called to the case received a history from the primary team. When he started to try to talk with the parent outside of the room, the child became upset. He was able to gather the information that Henry also had skipped breakfast. In an attempt to calm the patient down, the psychiatrist addressed Henry using a nonjudgmental, nonconfrontational, collaborative approach, incorporating play. Henry responded to this approach and allowed the psychiatrist to ask a few questions about basic needs, and admitted that he was hungry. He was offered a turkey sandwich, which was rapidly ingested. The tantrum slowly subsided. Within about 30 minutes (and with some more food), the child was able to sit on his parent’s lap and finish the interview. The decision was made to have him follow up with his primary care provider to change to an SSRI with a longer half-life, such as fluoxetine, as he did seem to be experiencing some discontinuation even after missing just a dose or two of sertraline.
When dealing with emergent, aggressive behavior, food isn’t always the best medicine, but sometimes it is. Environmental barriers to the child’s regaining control include hunger, thirst, a full bladder, constipation, or other pain. Attending to these issues first sometimes can help avoid sedating medications, which can prolong emergency visits and lead to unwelcome side effects.
Dr. Althoff is associate professor of psychiatry, psychology, and pediatrics at the University of Vermont, Burlington. He is director of the division of behavioral genetics and conducts research on the development of self-regulation in children. Email him at [email protected].
References
1. Pediatrics. 2011 May;127(5):e1356-66.
2. J Can Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2011 Feb;20(1):60-7.
When cannabis use becomes another disorder
Despite the justified concern about rising opiate use in the United States, cannabis remains the most commonly used substance in the 12- to 17-year-old population.1 Cannabis use is widespread, particularly in states in which it has been decriminalized or legalized. While use of alcohol and nicotine has fallen among high school students from the years 2010 to 2015, marijuana use has remained relatively constant.2 In addition, the potency of cannabis with regard to tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) content has increased over the years. Despite the common belief among the public that cannabis use is benign, accumulating research is revealing a number of concerning consequences, especially in vulnerable populations and those who use cannabis regularly.
Case summary
Case discussion
Treatment for these adverse effects of cannabis is cessation of the drug. This can be accomplished through hard work with a counselor, who may recommend any of a number of treatments, including contingency management, cognitive behavioral therapy, systematic multidimensional family therapy, and motivational enhancement therapy, among others.5 While common lore is that it is impossible to stop cannabis use, the effect sizes of these treatments is in the moderate to large range. There are viable options to stop cannabis use, especially when it becomes problematic.
Dr. Althoff is associate professor of psychiatry, psychology, and pediatrics at the University of Vermont, Burlington. He is director of the division of behavioral genetics and conducts research on the development of self-regulation in children. Email him at [email protected].
References
1. “Results from the 2013 National Survey on Drug Use and Health: Summary of National Findings,” Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration Center for Behavioral Health Statistics and Quality, 2013.
2. “Monitoring the Future Survey, 2015,” National Institute on Drug Abuse.
3. Pharmaceuticals (Basel). 2012 Jul;5(7):719-26.
4. Nat Rev Neurosci. 2007 Nov;8(11):885-95.
5. Dtsch Arztebl Int. 2016 Sep;113(39): 653-9.
Despite the justified concern about rising opiate use in the United States, cannabis remains the most commonly used substance in the 12- to 17-year-old population.1 Cannabis use is widespread, particularly in states in which it has been decriminalized or legalized. While use of alcohol and nicotine has fallen among high school students from the years 2010 to 2015, marijuana use has remained relatively constant.2 In addition, the potency of cannabis with regard to tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) content has increased over the years. Despite the common belief among the public that cannabis use is benign, accumulating research is revealing a number of concerning consequences, especially in vulnerable populations and those who use cannabis regularly.
Case summary
Case discussion
Treatment for these adverse effects of cannabis is cessation of the drug. This can be accomplished through hard work with a counselor, who may recommend any of a number of treatments, including contingency management, cognitive behavioral therapy, systematic multidimensional family therapy, and motivational enhancement therapy, among others.5 While common lore is that it is impossible to stop cannabis use, the effect sizes of these treatments is in the moderate to large range. There are viable options to stop cannabis use, especially when it becomes problematic.
Dr. Althoff is associate professor of psychiatry, psychology, and pediatrics at the University of Vermont, Burlington. He is director of the division of behavioral genetics and conducts research on the development of self-regulation in children. Email him at [email protected].
References
1. “Results from the 2013 National Survey on Drug Use and Health: Summary of National Findings,” Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration Center for Behavioral Health Statistics and Quality, 2013.
2. “Monitoring the Future Survey, 2015,” National Institute on Drug Abuse.
3. Pharmaceuticals (Basel). 2012 Jul;5(7):719-26.
4. Nat Rev Neurosci. 2007 Nov;8(11):885-95.
5. Dtsch Arztebl Int. 2016 Sep;113(39): 653-9.
Despite the justified concern about rising opiate use in the United States, cannabis remains the most commonly used substance in the 12- to 17-year-old population.1 Cannabis use is widespread, particularly in states in which it has been decriminalized or legalized. While use of alcohol and nicotine has fallen among high school students from the years 2010 to 2015, marijuana use has remained relatively constant.2 In addition, the potency of cannabis with regard to tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) content has increased over the years. Despite the common belief among the public that cannabis use is benign, accumulating research is revealing a number of concerning consequences, especially in vulnerable populations and those who use cannabis regularly.
Case summary
Case discussion
Treatment for these adverse effects of cannabis is cessation of the drug. This can be accomplished through hard work with a counselor, who may recommend any of a number of treatments, including contingency management, cognitive behavioral therapy, systematic multidimensional family therapy, and motivational enhancement therapy, among others.5 While common lore is that it is impossible to stop cannabis use, the effect sizes of these treatments is in the moderate to large range. There are viable options to stop cannabis use, especially when it becomes problematic.
Dr. Althoff is associate professor of psychiatry, psychology, and pediatrics at the University of Vermont, Burlington. He is director of the division of behavioral genetics and conducts research on the development of self-regulation in children. Email him at [email protected].
References
1. “Results from the 2013 National Survey on Drug Use and Health: Summary of National Findings,” Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration Center for Behavioral Health Statistics and Quality, 2013.
2. “Monitoring the Future Survey, 2015,” National Institute on Drug Abuse.
3. Pharmaceuticals (Basel). 2012 Jul;5(7):719-26.
4. Nat Rev Neurosci. 2007 Nov;8(11):885-95.
5. Dtsch Arztebl Int. 2016 Sep;113(39): 653-9.
Adverse childhood experiences
Adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) are the traumatic experiences in a person’s life occurring before the age of 18 years that the person remembers as an adult and that have consequences on a diverse set of outcomes. ACEs include physical abuse, sexual abuse, emotional abuse, mental illness of a household member, problematic drinking or alcoholism of a household member, illegal street or prescription drug use by a household member, divorce or separation of a parent, domestic violence toward a parent, and incarceration of a household member. Each of these experiences before the age of 18 years increases the likelihood of not only adulthood depression, suicide, and substance use disorders, but also a range of nonpsychiatric outcomes such as heart disease and chronic lung disease.
Case summary
Ellie is a 16-year-old girl with a past history of ADHD and oppositionality who arrives on her own in a walk-in clinic to be seen for a sports physical. Ellie has been generally healthy and was previously on a stable medical regimen of methylphenidate but has not been taking it for about 1 year. The oppositionality that she previously experienced in her early school-age years has slowly decreased. She generally does well in school and is in several clubs. In the course of the history, Ellie reveals that her mother’s depression has been worse lately to the point where her mother has resumed her drinking and illegal opiate use. You discuss safety with Ellie, and she reveals that, while she has never been threatened or injured, there has been domestic violence in the home that Ellie felt responsible to try to stop by calling the police. This led to the one and only time that Ellie was physically struck. Her father is now incarcerated, and Ellie feels guilty. After a discussion with Ellie, you report this situation to social services, who already has the case on file. Ellie’s mental status exam, including a thorough examination of symptoms of mood disorders, anxiety, substance use, and PTSD, is within normal limits.
Case discussion
Ellie has suffered a set of ACEs. Specifically, her mother has a mental illness, has a drinking problem, and uses illegal drugs; Ellie has witnessed domestic violence toward her mother, has a family member who is incarcerated, and has suffered from physical abuse. This ACEs score of 6 puts her at markedly increased risk for multiple psychiatric and nonpsychiatric medical outcomes. Individuals with scores of 4 or above on the simple ACEs questionnaire have demonstrated a 4- to 12-fold increased health risks for alcoholism, drug abuse, depression, and suicide attempts. Further, studies have shown a twofold to fourfold increase in smoking, poor self-rated health, increased numbers of sexual partners and sexually transmitted disease, and 1.4- to 1.6-fold increase in physical inactivity and severe obesity (Am J Prev Med. 1998 May;14[4]:245-58). In Ellie’s case, her history of ADHD and family history of substance use puts her at even further increased risk for later substance use disorders.
While there is no pharmacotherapy or psychotherapy specific to the treatment of having suffered adversity, it is critical for the clinician to note her increased risk. Ellie would be an individual for whom health promotion and prevention would be critical. It is excellent that she is exercising and participating in sports, which appear to be protective. Careful counseling and follow-up with regard to her increased risk for psychiatric and nonpsychiatric disorders is paramount.
Dr. Althoff is associate professor of psychiatry, psychology, and pediatrics at the University of Vermont, Burlington. He is director of the division of behavioral genetics and conducts research on the development of self-regulation in children. Email him at [email protected].
Adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) are the traumatic experiences in a person’s life occurring before the age of 18 years that the person remembers as an adult and that have consequences on a diverse set of outcomes. ACEs include physical abuse, sexual abuse, emotional abuse, mental illness of a household member, problematic drinking or alcoholism of a household member, illegal street or prescription drug use by a household member, divorce or separation of a parent, domestic violence toward a parent, and incarceration of a household member. Each of these experiences before the age of 18 years increases the likelihood of not only adulthood depression, suicide, and substance use disorders, but also a range of nonpsychiatric outcomes such as heart disease and chronic lung disease.
Case summary
Ellie is a 16-year-old girl with a past history of ADHD and oppositionality who arrives on her own in a walk-in clinic to be seen for a sports physical. Ellie has been generally healthy and was previously on a stable medical regimen of methylphenidate but has not been taking it for about 1 year. The oppositionality that she previously experienced in her early school-age years has slowly decreased. She generally does well in school and is in several clubs. In the course of the history, Ellie reveals that her mother’s depression has been worse lately to the point where her mother has resumed her drinking and illegal opiate use. You discuss safety with Ellie, and she reveals that, while she has never been threatened or injured, there has been domestic violence in the home that Ellie felt responsible to try to stop by calling the police. This led to the one and only time that Ellie was physically struck. Her father is now incarcerated, and Ellie feels guilty. After a discussion with Ellie, you report this situation to social services, who already has the case on file. Ellie’s mental status exam, including a thorough examination of symptoms of mood disorders, anxiety, substance use, and PTSD, is within normal limits.
Case discussion
Ellie has suffered a set of ACEs. Specifically, her mother has a mental illness, has a drinking problem, and uses illegal drugs; Ellie has witnessed domestic violence toward her mother, has a family member who is incarcerated, and has suffered from physical abuse. This ACEs score of 6 puts her at markedly increased risk for multiple psychiatric and nonpsychiatric medical outcomes. Individuals with scores of 4 or above on the simple ACEs questionnaire have demonstrated a 4- to 12-fold increased health risks for alcoholism, drug abuse, depression, and suicide attempts. Further, studies have shown a twofold to fourfold increase in smoking, poor self-rated health, increased numbers of sexual partners and sexually transmitted disease, and 1.4- to 1.6-fold increase in physical inactivity and severe obesity (Am J Prev Med. 1998 May;14[4]:245-58). In Ellie’s case, her history of ADHD and family history of substance use puts her at even further increased risk for later substance use disorders.
While there is no pharmacotherapy or psychotherapy specific to the treatment of having suffered adversity, it is critical for the clinician to note her increased risk. Ellie would be an individual for whom health promotion and prevention would be critical. It is excellent that she is exercising and participating in sports, which appear to be protective. Careful counseling and follow-up with regard to her increased risk for psychiatric and nonpsychiatric disorders is paramount.
Dr. Althoff is associate professor of psychiatry, psychology, and pediatrics at the University of Vermont, Burlington. He is director of the division of behavioral genetics and conducts research on the development of self-regulation in children. Email him at [email protected].
Adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) are the traumatic experiences in a person’s life occurring before the age of 18 years that the person remembers as an adult and that have consequences on a diverse set of outcomes. ACEs include physical abuse, sexual abuse, emotional abuse, mental illness of a household member, problematic drinking or alcoholism of a household member, illegal street or prescription drug use by a household member, divorce or separation of a parent, domestic violence toward a parent, and incarceration of a household member. Each of these experiences before the age of 18 years increases the likelihood of not only adulthood depression, suicide, and substance use disorders, but also a range of nonpsychiatric outcomes such as heart disease and chronic lung disease.
Case summary
Ellie is a 16-year-old girl with a past history of ADHD and oppositionality who arrives on her own in a walk-in clinic to be seen for a sports physical. Ellie has been generally healthy and was previously on a stable medical regimen of methylphenidate but has not been taking it for about 1 year. The oppositionality that she previously experienced in her early school-age years has slowly decreased. She generally does well in school and is in several clubs. In the course of the history, Ellie reveals that her mother’s depression has been worse lately to the point where her mother has resumed her drinking and illegal opiate use. You discuss safety with Ellie, and she reveals that, while she has never been threatened or injured, there has been domestic violence in the home that Ellie felt responsible to try to stop by calling the police. This led to the one and only time that Ellie was physically struck. Her father is now incarcerated, and Ellie feels guilty. After a discussion with Ellie, you report this situation to social services, who already has the case on file. Ellie’s mental status exam, including a thorough examination of symptoms of mood disorders, anxiety, substance use, and PTSD, is within normal limits.
Case discussion
Ellie has suffered a set of ACEs. Specifically, her mother has a mental illness, has a drinking problem, and uses illegal drugs; Ellie has witnessed domestic violence toward her mother, has a family member who is incarcerated, and has suffered from physical abuse. This ACEs score of 6 puts her at markedly increased risk for multiple psychiatric and nonpsychiatric medical outcomes. Individuals with scores of 4 or above on the simple ACEs questionnaire have demonstrated a 4- to 12-fold increased health risks for alcoholism, drug abuse, depression, and suicide attempts. Further, studies have shown a twofold to fourfold increase in smoking, poor self-rated health, increased numbers of sexual partners and sexually transmitted disease, and 1.4- to 1.6-fold increase in physical inactivity and severe obesity (Am J Prev Med. 1998 May;14[4]:245-58). In Ellie’s case, her history of ADHD and family history of substance use puts her at even further increased risk for later substance use disorders.
While there is no pharmacotherapy or psychotherapy specific to the treatment of having suffered adversity, it is critical for the clinician to note her increased risk. Ellie would be an individual for whom health promotion and prevention would be critical. It is excellent that she is exercising and participating in sports, which appear to be protective. Careful counseling and follow-up with regard to her increased risk for psychiatric and nonpsychiatric disorders is paramount.
Dr. Althoff is associate professor of psychiatry, psychology, and pediatrics at the University of Vermont, Burlington. He is director of the division of behavioral genetics and conducts research on the development of self-regulation in children. Email him at [email protected].
New onset of tics
A tic is described by the DSM-5 as a sudden, rapid, recurrent, nonrhythmic movement or vocalization. Tics are a common occurrence in childhood and can range from mild to severe, transient to chronic, simple to complex. It is not uncommon for parents to ask pediatric care providers when and how to manage tics in children. Here, we present a case to illustrate just such an issue.
Case summary
Adam is an 8-year-old with a previous diagnosis of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) who is being seen for follow-up after being started on a stimulant 3 months ago because of declining performance in school and at home, despite adequate accommodations, parent education, and nonpharmacologic treatments. He has done well on a small dose of methylphenidate (0.5 mg/kg per day), but in the context of being asked about other symptoms, his mother, Mary, mentions that she has noticed that Adam is frequently clearing his throat. This began about 6 weeks ago after experiencing allergic rhinitis for almost a week. Since that time, Mary has noticed that he clears his throat as frequently as once every 5 minutes.
The behavior was reported to occur in the classroom, but not nearly with the frequency experienced at home. If asked to not clear his throat, Adam can suppress it. None of his classmates have said anything or appear to have noticed. His parents have never noticed any tics previously. There is a family history of ADHD in his father. There is no other family history of neurodevelopmental disorders, including no obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD), Tourette’s disorder, or other chronic tic disorders. There is nothing else of concern on physical or mental status examination. His mother has concerns that the stimulant medication may be inducing a tic and wonders about stopping it.
Case discussion
Adam has a mild simple vocal tic. The vast majority of tics that develop in childhood will not last the requisite 1 year required to make the diagnosis of a persistent (chronic) motor or vocal tic, nor will they occur with both vocal and motor tics over 1 year required to make the diagnosis of Tourette’s disorder. In the DSM-IV, tics lasting less than 1 year would have been given the diagnosis of transient tic disorder.
In the DSM-5, the diagnosis is now provisional tic disorder because there is no way to tell which tics will be transient and which will be persistent or chronic. Chronic tics occur with a prevalence of between 0.5% and 3%1, with a male predominance, and are more common in children with ADHD and OCD. In addition, children with chronic tic disorders often have higher incidence of learning problems and, perhaps, autism spectrum disorders. Simple motor and vocal tics (those involving a single muscle group) are more common than complex tics, in which coordinated movements are made. Despite the portrayal in the popular media, it is particularly rare to have complex tics that include copropraxia (an obscene gesture), coprolalia (an obscene movement), echolalia (repeating another’s words), or echopraxia (repeating another’s actions).
Tics tend to have their onset in early school age, with the highest prevalence and severity between the ages of 9 and 12 years.2 When present, tics tend to be somewhat suppressed when the child is in school or when the child is engaged in a task. Furthermore, most tics, even when chronic, do not lead to impairment. When impairment does occur, it is often the result of social problems from teasing by peers. Most tics wax and wane over time, but eventually resolve without intervention.
In the case of Adam, there is no clear reason to begin to treat immediately. If one wanted to follow his tics, there are several parent and clinic measures that are available. Taking a history of his case would include ensuring that there are no other predisposing causes and no other psychiatric comorbidities. Induction of tics by the initiation of a stimulant might be considered, although recent data suggest that stimulants are less likely to induce or worsen tics in the course of treatment for ADHD than previously thought.3,4 If concerned, however, alternative ADHD treatment such as alpha-2 agonist treatment could be considered. Education could be provided to the parents regarding the likelihood of resolution. Should the tics worsen in severity and/or become chronic, there are several behavioral interventions, including habit reversal training and the Comprehensive Behavioral Intervention for Tics, which could be considered as first line.
Medications could be considered if the tics are moderate to severe and behavioral interventions are not sufficient to reduce impairment. The only Food and Drug Administration–approved agents are haloperidol and pimozide, although there is ample support for other agents, and practitioners are most likely to use alternatives, given the side-effect profiles of these typical antipsychotics. Co-occurring symptoms should be considered when thinking about medication. Alpha-2 agonists appear to be most effective in the context of ADHD, while second-generation antipsychotics appear to be more useful if OCD is comorbid. In general, though, in cases like Adam’s, taking a watchful-waiting approach will most often lead to symptom resolution.
References
1. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2012 Jan;21(1):5-13.
2. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2013 Dec;52(12):1341-59.
3. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2015 Sep;54(9):728-36.
4. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2011 Apr 13;(4):CD007990.
Dr. Althoff is associate professor of psychiatry, psychology, and pediatrics at the University of Vermont, Burlington. He is director of the division of behavioral genetics and conducts research on the development of self-regulation in children. Email him at [email protected].
A tic is described by the DSM-5 as a sudden, rapid, recurrent, nonrhythmic movement or vocalization. Tics are a common occurrence in childhood and can range from mild to severe, transient to chronic, simple to complex. It is not uncommon for parents to ask pediatric care providers when and how to manage tics in children. Here, we present a case to illustrate just such an issue.
Case summary
Adam is an 8-year-old with a previous diagnosis of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) who is being seen for follow-up after being started on a stimulant 3 months ago because of declining performance in school and at home, despite adequate accommodations, parent education, and nonpharmacologic treatments. He has done well on a small dose of methylphenidate (0.5 mg/kg per day), but in the context of being asked about other symptoms, his mother, Mary, mentions that she has noticed that Adam is frequently clearing his throat. This began about 6 weeks ago after experiencing allergic rhinitis for almost a week. Since that time, Mary has noticed that he clears his throat as frequently as once every 5 minutes.
The behavior was reported to occur in the classroom, but not nearly with the frequency experienced at home. If asked to not clear his throat, Adam can suppress it. None of his classmates have said anything or appear to have noticed. His parents have never noticed any tics previously. There is a family history of ADHD in his father. There is no other family history of neurodevelopmental disorders, including no obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD), Tourette’s disorder, or other chronic tic disorders. There is nothing else of concern on physical or mental status examination. His mother has concerns that the stimulant medication may be inducing a tic and wonders about stopping it.
Case discussion
Adam has a mild simple vocal tic. The vast majority of tics that develop in childhood will not last the requisite 1 year required to make the diagnosis of a persistent (chronic) motor or vocal tic, nor will they occur with both vocal and motor tics over 1 year required to make the diagnosis of Tourette’s disorder. In the DSM-IV, tics lasting less than 1 year would have been given the diagnosis of transient tic disorder.
In the DSM-5, the diagnosis is now provisional tic disorder because there is no way to tell which tics will be transient and which will be persistent or chronic. Chronic tics occur with a prevalence of between 0.5% and 3%1, with a male predominance, and are more common in children with ADHD and OCD. In addition, children with chronic tic disorders often have higher incidence of learning problems and, perhaps, autism spectrum disorders. Simple motor and vocal tics (those involving a single muscle group) are more common than complex tics, in which coordinated movements are made. Despite the portrayal in the popular media, it is particularly rare to have complex tics that include copropraxia (an obscene gesture), coprolalia (an obscene movement), echolalia (repeating another’s words), or echopraxia (repeating another’s actions).
Tics tend to have their onset in early school age, with the highest prevalence and severity between the ages of 9 and 12 years.2 When present, tics tend to be somewhat suppressed when the child is in school or when the child is engaged in a task. Furthermore, most tics, even when chronic, do not lead to impairment. When impairment does occur, it is often the result of social problems from teasing by peers. Most tics wax and wane over time, but eventually resolve without intervention.
In the case of Adam, there is no clear reason to begin to treat immediately. If one wanted to follow his tics, there are several parent and clinic measures that are available. Taking a history of his case would include ensuring that there are no other predisposing causes and no other psychiatric comorbidities. Induction of tics by the initiation of a stimulant might be considered, although recent data suggest that stimulants are less likely to induce or worsen tics in the course of treatment for ADHD than previously thought.3,4 If concerned, however, alternative ADHD treatment such as alpha-2 agonist treatment could be considered. Education could be provided to the parents regarding the likelihood of resolution. Should the tics worsen in severity and/or become chronic, there are several behavioral interventions, including habit reversal training and the Comprehensive Behavioral Intervention for Tics, which could be considered as first line.
Medications could be considered if the tics are moderate to severe and behavioral interventions are not sufficient to reduce impairment. The only Food and Drug Administration–approved agents are haloperidol and pimozide, although there is ample support for other agents, and practitioners are most likely to use alternatives, given the side-effect profiles of these typical antipsychotics. Co-occurring symptoms should be considered when thinking about medication. Alpha-2 agonists appear to be most effective in the context of ADHD, while second-generation antipsychotics appear to be more useful if OCD is comorbid. In general, though, in cases like Adam’s, taking a watchful-waiting approach will most often lead to symptom resolution.
References
1. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2012 Jan;21(1):5-13.
2. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2013 Dec;52(12):1341-59.
3. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2015 Sep;54(9):728-36.
4. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2011 Apr 13;(4):CD007990.
Dr. Althoff is associate professor of psychiatry, psychology, and pediatrics at the University of Vermont, Burlington. He is director of the division of behavioral genetics and conducts research on the development of self-regulation in children. Email him at [email protected].
A tic is described by the DSM-5 as a sudden, rapid, recurrent, nonrhythmic movement or vocalization. Tics are a common occurrence in childhood and can range from mild to severe, transient to chronic, simple to complex. It is not uncommon for parents to ask pediatric care providers when and how to manage tics in children. Here, we present a case to illustrate just such an issue.
Case summary
Adam is an 8-year-old with a previous diagnosis of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) who is being seen for follow-up after being started on a stimulant 3 months ago because of declining performance in school and at home, despite adequate accommodations, parent education, and nonpharmacologic treatments. He has done well on a small dose of methylphenidate (0.5 mg/kg per day), but in the context of being asked about other symptoms, his mother, Mary, mentions that she has noticed that Adam is frequently clearing his throat. This began about 6 weeks ago after experiencing allergic rhinitis for almost a week. Since that time, Mary has noticed that he clears his throat as frequently as once every 5 minutes.
The behavior was reported to occur in the classroom, but not nearly with the frequency experienced at home. If asked to not clear his throat, Adam can suppress it. None of his classmates have said anything or appear to have noticed. His parents have never noticed any tics previously. There is a family history of ADHD in his father. There is no other family history of neurodevelopmental disorders, including no obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD), Tourette’s disorder, or other chronic tic disorders. There is nothing else of concern on physical or mental status examination. His mother has concerns that the stimulant medication may be inducing a tic and wonders about stopping it.
Case discussion
Adam has a mild simple vocal tic. The vast majority of tics that develop in childhood will not last the requisite 1 year required to make the diagnosis of a persistent (chronic) motor or vocal tic, nor will they occur with both vocal and motor tics over 1 year required to make the diagnosis of Tourette’s disorder. In the DSM-IV, tics lasting less than 1 year would have been given the diagnosis of transient tic disorder.
In the DSM-5, the diagnosis is now provisional tic disorder because there is no way to tell which tics will be transient and which will be persistent or chronic. Chronic tics occur with a prevalence of between 0.5% and 3%1, with a male predominance, and are more common in children with ADHD and OCD. In addition, children with chronic tic disorders often have higher incidence of learning problems and, perhaps, autism spectrum disorders. Simple motor and vocal tics (those involving a single muscle group) are more common than complex tics, in which coordinated movements are made. Despite the portrayal in the popular media, it is particularly rare to have complex tics that include copropraxia (an obscene gesture), coprolalia (an obscene movement), echolalia (repeating another’s words), or echopraxia (repeating another’s actions).
Tics tend to have their onset in early school age, with the highest prevalence and severity between the ages of 9 and 12 years.2 When present, tics tend to be somewhat suppressed when the child is in school or when the child is engaged in a task. Furthermore, most tics, even when chronic, do not lead to impairment. When impairment does occur, it is often the result of social problems from teasing by peers. Most tics wax and wane over time, but eventually resolve without intervention.
In the case of Adam, there is no clear reason to begin to treat immediately. If one wanted to follow his tics, there are several parent and clinic measures that are available. Taking a history of his case would include ensuring that there are no other predisposing causes and no other psychiatric comorbidities. Induction of tics by the initiation of a stimulant might be considered, although recent data suggest that stimulants are less likely to induce or worsen tics in the course of treatment for ADHD than previously thought.3,4 If concerned, however, alternative ADHD treatment such as alpha-2 agonist treatment could be considered. Education could be provided to the parents regarding the likelihood of resolution. Should the tics worsen in severity and/or become chronic, there are several behavioral interventions, including habit reversal training and the Comprehensive Behavioral Intervention for Tics, which could be considered as first line.
Medications could be considered if the tics are moderate to severe and behavioral interventions are not sufficient to reduce impairment. The only Food and Drug Administration–approved agents are haloperidol and pimozide, although there is ample support for other agents, and practitioners are most likely to use alternatives, given the side-effect profiles of these typical antipsychotics. Co-occurring symptoms should be considered when thinking about medication. Alpha-2 agonists appear to be most effective in the context of ADHD, while second-generation antipsychotics appear to be more useful if OCD is comorbid. In general, though, in cases like Adam’s, taking a watchful-waiting approach will most often lead to symptom resolution.
References
1. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2012 Jan;21(1):5-13.
2. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2013 Dec;52(12):1341-59.
3. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2015 Sep;54(9):728-36.
4. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2011 Apr 13;(4):CD007990.
Dr. Althoff is associate professor of psychiatry, psychology, and pediatrics at the University of Vermont, Burlington. He is director of the division of behavioral genetics and conducts research on the development of self-regulation in children. Email him at [email protected].
Metabolic monitoring of antipsychotic meds
Introduction
The use of antipsychotic medications has become more common in children and adolescents over the past 2 decades (Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2012 Dec;69[12]:1247-56). Whether or not one agrees that the trend in prescribing these agents is problematic (and I do), often the prescription and monitoring of antipsychotic medication falls to the primary care clinician who may have concerns about how to manage them. Here, we present a case to illustrate just such an issue.
Case summary
James is a 17-year-old young man with a diagnosis of bipolar disorder made earlier this year after an inpatient day at a local hospital. James had a history of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) growing up, but also had a strong family history of bipolar disorder. He began having increasing difficulty during the summer after his junior year, and then had a clear manic episode with elation and grandiosity that necessitated the hospitalization. During the relatively short stay on the psychiatric unit, he was placed on lithium carbonate and risperidone to treat the mania, which did respond. Although it was recommended that he follow up with a child and adolescent psychiatrist, through a series of happenstances he missed two appointments for an intake. He is now only able to get a new intake that is 4 months off.
You have continued to prescribe for him, waiting for what always seemed to be an imminent appointment. But now he comes to the office for a follow-up visit that can no longer wait. His mood symptoms are actually doing quite well. However, you have always known James to have a relatively thin build in the 25th percentile for weight and the 75th percentile for height. Now (is it possible?) 6 months after starting the risperidone and lithium, he returns to the office in the 50th percentile for weight and remains in the 75th percentile for height. There is nothing else noted to be concerning on physical or mental status examination, but you wonder what should be done for monitoring of his weight, should you be doing it, and whether there are other metabolic parameters that you should be measuring?
Case discussion
Regardless of your stance on pediatric bipolar disorder and the treatments for it, James has been placed on medications that need to be monitored. While it appears that James will, eventually, have a prescriber who can monitor his medication for side effects, it is incumbent on all of his providers to make sure that monitoring is occurring. Recent studies have demonstrated that guidelines for monitoring of antipsychotic use are not consistently being adhered to. For example, Rettew et al. (Pediatrics. 2015 Apr;135[4]:658-65) recently reported that metabolic monitoring that included laboratory tests was reported in only 57.2% of cases where an antipsychotic was prescribed.
Children and adolescents placed on these agents should be monitored in a number of ways. First, height and weight should be taken at baseline and at follow-up visits – at least every 6 months. The American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry practice parameters state that “consideration of weight management interventions and increased regularity of blood glucose and lipid levels should be implemented if [atypical antipsychotic agent]–induced weight gain exceeds 90th percentile body mass index (BMI) for age, or a change of five BMI units in those youths who were obese at the beginning of treatment.” Fasting blood sugar, fasting triglyceride, and cholesterol panels should be done at baseline and at approximately 6-month intervals. Screening for dystonic movements with an Abnormal Involuntary Movement Scale (AIMS) should be done at 6-month intervals. In the case of risperidone, if there are any questions about gynecomastia, galactorrhea, and/or sexual dysfunction, a prolactin level should be considered. Certain other antipsychotics require specific monitoring (for example, ECG for prolonged QT interval for ziprasidone, CBC for clozapine, and an eye exam for quetiapine).
The most important kinds of monitoring are for dose and efficacy. While the antipsychotic medications may have a role, they are not a panacea and do carry longer-term risks of metabolic problems and obesity, among others. If it is possible to provide interventions to reduce the dose or duration of use, that is preferable. If not, it’s best to work with the psychiatrist (if available) to determine who will perform the monitoring and how often it will be done to stave off metabolic problems as early as possible.
Dr. Althoff is associate professor of psychiatry, psychology, and pediatrics at the University of Vermont, Burlington. He is director of the division of behavioral genetics and conducts research on the development of self-regulation in children. Dr. Althoff receives no funding from pharmaceutical companies or industry. He has grant funding from the National Institute of General Medical Sciences and the Klingenstein Third Generation Foundation and is employed, in part, by the nonprofit Research Center for Children, Youth, and Families that develops the Child Behavior Checklist and associated instruments. E-mail him at [email protected].
Introduction
The use of antipsychotic medications has become more common in children and adolescents over the past 2 decades (Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2012 Dec;69[12]:1247-56). Whether or not one agrees that the trend in prescribing these agents is problematic (and I do), often the prescription and monitoring of antipsychotic medication falls to the primary care clinician who may have concerns about how to manage them. Here, we present a case to illustrate just such an issue.
Case summary
James is a 17-year-old young man with a diagnosis of bipolar disorder made earlier this year after an inpatient day at a local hospital. James had a history of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) growing up, but also had a strong family history of bipolar disorder. He began having increasing difficulty during the summer after his junior year, and then had a clear manic episode with elation and grandiosity that necessitated the hospitalization. During the relatively short stay on the psychiatric unit, he was placed on lithium carbonate and risperidone to treat the mania, which did respond. Although it was recommended that he follow up with a child and adolescent psychiatrist, through a series of happenstances he missed two appointments for an intake. He is now only able to get a new intake that is 4 months off.
You have continued to prescribe for him, waiting for what always seemed to be an imminent appointment. But now he comes to the office for a follow-up visit that can no longer wait. His mood symptoms are actually doing quite well. However, you have always known James to have a relatively thin build in the 25th percentile for weight and the 75th percentile for height. Now (is it possible?) 6 months after starting the risperidone and lithium, he returns to the office in the 50th percentile for weight and remains in the 75th percentile for height. There is nothing else noted to be concerning on physical or mental status examination, but you wonder what should be done for monitoring of his weight, should you be doing it, and whether there are other metabolic parameters that you should be measuring?
Case discussion
Regardless of your stance on pediatric bipolar disorder and the treatments for it, James has been placed on medications that need to be monitored. While it appears that James will, eventually, have a prescriber who can monitor his medication for side effects, it is incumbent on all of his providers to make sure that monitoring is occurring. Recent studies have demonstrated that guidelines for monitoring of antipsychotic use are not consistently being adhered to. For example, Rettew et al. (Pediatrics. 2015 Apr;135[4]:658-65) recently reported that metabolic monitoring that included laboratory tests was reported in only 57.2% of cases where an antipsychotic was prescribed.
Children and adolescents placed on these agents should be monitored in a number of ways. First, height and weight should be taken at baseline and at follow-up visits – at least every 6 months. The American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry practice parameters state that “consideration of weight management interventions and increased regularity of blood glucose and lipid levels should be implemented if [atypical antipsychotic agent]–induced weight gain exceeds 90th percentile body mass index (BMI) for age, or a change of five BMI units in those youths who were obese at the beginning of treatment.” Fasting blood sugar, fasting triglyceride, and cholesterol panels should be done at baseline and at approximately 6-month intervals. Screening for dystonic movements with an Abnormal Involuntary Movement Scale (AIMS) should be done at 6-month intervals. In the case of risperidone, if there are any questions about gynecomastia, galactorrhea, and/or sexual dysfunction, a prolactin level should be considered. Certain other antipsychotics require specific monitoring (for example, ECG for prolonged QT interval for ziprasidone, CBC for clozapine, and an eye exam for quetiapine).
The most important kinds of monitoring are for dose and efficacy. While the antipsychotic medications may have a role, they are not a panacea and do carry longer-term risks of metabolic problems and obesity, among others. If it is possible to provide interventions to reduce the dose or duration of use, that is preferable. If not, it’s best to work with the psychiatrist (if available) to determine who will perform the monitoring and how often it will be done to stave off metabolic problems as early as possible.
Dr. Althoff is associate professor of psychiatry, psychology, and pediatrics at the University of Vermont, Burlington. He is director of the division of behavioral genetics and conducts research on the development of self-regulation in children. Dr. Althoff receives no funding from pharmaceutical companies or industry. He has grant funding from the National Institute of General Medical Sciences and the Klingenstein Third Generation Foundation and is employed, in part, by the nonprofit Research Center for Children, Youth, and Families that develops the Child Behavior Checklist and associated instruments. E-mail him at [email protected].
Introduction
The use of antipsychotic medications has become more common in children and adolescents over the past 2 decades (Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2012 Dec;69[12]:1247-56). Whether or not one agrees that the trend in prescribing these agents is problematic (and I do), often the prescription and monitoring of antipsychotic medication falls to the primary care clinician who may have concerns about how to manage them. Here, we present a case to illustrate just such an issue.
Case summary
James is a 17-year-old young man with a diagnosis of bipolar disorder made earlier this year after an inpatient day at a local hospital. James had a history of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) growing up, but also had a strong family history of bipolar disorder. He began having increasing difficulty during the summer after his junior year, and then had a clear manic episode with elation and grandiosity that necessitated the hospitalization. During the relatively short stay on the psychiatric unit, he was placed on lithium carbonate and risperidone to treat the mania, which did respond. Although it was recommended that he follow up with a child and adolescent psychiatrist, through a series of happenstances he missed two appointments for an intake. He is now only able to get a new intake that is 4 months off.
You have continued to prescribe for him, waiting for what always seemed to be an imminent appointment. But now he comes to the office for a follow-up visit that can no longer wait. His mood symptoms are actually doing quite well. However, you have always known James to have a relatively thin build in the 25th percentile for weight and the 75th percentile for height. Now (is it possible?) 6 months after starting the risperidone and lithium, he returns to the office in the 50th percentile for weight and remains in the 75th percentile for height. There is nothing else noted to be concerning on physical or mental status examination, but you wonder what should be done for monitoring of his weight, should you be doing it, and whether there are other metabolic parameters that you should be measuring?
Case discussion
Regardless of your stance on pediatric bipolar disorder and the treatments for it, James has been placed on medications that need to be monitored. While it appears that James will, eventually, have a prescriber who can monitor his medication for side effects, it is incumbent on all of his providers to make sure that monitoring is occurring. Recent studies have demonstrated that guidelines for monitoring of antipsychotic use are not consistently being adhered to. For example, Rettew et al. (Pediatrics. 2015 Apr;135[4]:658-65) recently reported that metabolic monitoring that included laboratory tests was reported in only 57.2% of cases where an antipsychotic was prescribed.
Children and adolescents placed on these agents should be monitored in a number of ways. First, height and weight should be taken at baseline and at follow-up visits – at least every 6 months. The American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry practice parameters state that “consideration of weight management interventions and increased regularity of blood glucose and lipid levels should be implemented if [atypical antipsychotic agent]–induced weight gain exceeds 90th percentile body mass index (BMI) for age, or a change of five BMI units in those youths who were obese at the beginning of treatment.” Fasting blood sugar, fasting triglyceride, and cholesterol panels should be done at baseline and at approximately 6-month intervals. Screening for dystonic movements with an Abnormal Involuntary Movement Scale (AIMS) should be done at 6-month intervals. In the case of risperidone, if there are any questions about gynecomastia, galactorrhea, and/or sexual dysfunction, a prolactin level should be considered. Certain other antipsychotics require specific monitoring (for example, ECG for prolonged QT interval for ziprasidone, CBC for clozapine, and an eye exam for quetiapine).
The most important kinds of monitoring are for dose and efficacy. While the antipsychotic medications may have a role, they are not a panacea and do carry longer-term risks of metabolic problems and obesity, among others. If it is possible to provide interventions to reduce the dose or duration of use, that is preferable. If not, it’s best to work with the psychiatrist (if available) to determine who will perform the monitoring and how often it will be done to stave off metabolic problems as early as possible.
Dr. Althoff is associate professor of psychiatry, psychology, and pediatrics at the University of Vermont, Burlington. He is director of the division of behavioral genetics and conducts research on the development of self-regulation in children. Dr. Althoff receives no funding from pharmaceutical companies or industry. He has grant funding from the National Institute of General Medical Sciences and the Klingenstein Third Generation Foundation and is employed, in part, by the nonprofit Research Center for Children, Youth, and Families that develops the Child Behavior Checklist and associated instruments. E-mail him at [email protected].
Treatment of preschool ADHD
Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) has been identified in children, and appropriate treatments studied now for over half a century. The vast majority of cases that present for treatment do so after the child starts school and concerns are raised about ability to manage academics. Yet, when asked when the symptoms first began, many parents will describe onset prior to the school years – in the preschool period. But identification of ADHD in preschoolers can be difficult because of the developmental changes that are ongoing during the period from 3 to 5 years. Many of the symptoms that one would attribute to ADHD, such as increased motor activity, inattention, and distractibility are commonplace in this age group. Furthermore, some behaviors commonly associated with ADHD, such as emotional lability and obstinacy, are nearly synonymous with being a preschooler. So, how is the diagnosis made? When is it appropriate to treat? And what would that treatment look like? The following case, where symptoms of preschool ADHD go beyond typical development, provides some guides for treatment based on the evolving literature regarding preschool ADHD.
Case Summary
Johnny is a 4-year-old boy who was the product of a complicated pregnancy and delivery. Born at 35 weeks to a 17-year-old mother with a history of tobacco use disorder and depression, he spent several weeks in the special care nursery before leaving the hospital with his mother. His early temperament was described as being “difficult” with frequent episodes of colic and trouble establishing a sleep routine. His father had a history of conduct problems and school failure, and would come in and out of the family for the first 3 years. Lately, he had moved in with Johnny and his mother, and they were trying to “make a go of it.” Johnny had been slightly behind in his developmental milestones – particularly his language – but by 4 years he was able to speak in simple sentences, was able to name his colors, and had started copying circles and squares.
His parents bring Johnny in for an appointment that they made specifically to discuss his activity level and the question of ADHD, which has been brought up by multiple family members and his preschool teacher. They describe some behaviors that you have not heard about previously because they had assumed that “this is what boys did.” At age 3 years, he impulsively ran into the road after being told “no” and was nearly struck by a car. He continually tries to put things into the toaster, and they have had to get “industrial strength” plug covers because he tries to pry them off with a kitchen knife. On multiple occasions, his mother has locked herself in her bedroom because he wouldn’t stop talking to her and she couldn’t stand it anymore. When this happens, she checks often to make sure Johnny is safe, but then calls Johnny’s father home from his job as a delivery driver because she’s at her limit. In fact, Johnny’s father has been called to the preschool to bring Johnny home so many times that his father is in danger of losing his job. While Johnny appears to be a good athlete, he is often picked last for teams because he doesn’t pay attention in the game and likes to “play his own game” of tackling the other children. The stress of raising Johnny is weighing on the parents’ relationship, and Johnny’s father is considering moving out again. The parents ask for an assessment and treatment, preferably with medication.
Case Discussion
Johnny very likely has ADHD. However, to take appropriate caution in the diagnosis, one would consider that he needs to have six of nine criteria of inattention (being careless, difficulty sustaining attention, not listening, not following through, avoiding hard mental tasks, not organizing, losing important items, being easily distractible, and being forgetful) and/or six of nine criteria of hyperactivity/impulsivity (squirming/fidgeting, can’t stay seated, running or climbing excessively, can’t play quietly, “driven by a motor,” talking excessively, blurting out answers, not waiting his turn, and interrupting/intruding on others). As with school-aged ADHD, there need to be symptoms that are frequent (“often”) and that interfere with home, academic, or occupational function. One must take into account the base rate for these symptoms in preschoolers. For example, Willoughby and colleagues (J. Abnorm. Child Psychol. 2012;40:1301-12) demonstrated that at age 4 years, 26.3% of children fidget or squirm, 39.5% act as if “driven by a motor,” 46.3% talk excessively, 28.8% are easily distracted, and 25.4% have difficult waiting their turn. In fact, on average, a 4-year-old will have 1.3 inattentive items and 2.4 hyperactive-impulsive items. Still, Johnny seems to have more than his fair share. This can be validated by a) doing a careful evaluation over time using multiple informants, b) taking a family history, c) looking at developmental signs and ruling out other developmental disorders, d) making physical observations in the office (although these can be deceiving) and e) having the parents and others complete parent and caregiver checklists.
When asking parents and caregivers to complete checklists, it is crucial to make sure that these checklists look for symptoms other than just ADHD, because there are often co-occurring symptoms and disorders. These include oppositional defiant disorder, anxiety, obsessive compulsive disorder, depressive disorders, autism spectrum disorders, trauma, and learning/communication disorders. In fact, the Preschool ADHD Treatment Study (PATS) demonstrated that 71.5% of children with preschool ADHD had at least one other diagnosis and 29.7% had two or more (J. Child Adolesc. Psychopharmacol. 2007;17:563-80). Use of a broad-based instrument that captures all of these domains, in addition to attention, is warranted. In our clinic, we also assess the parents for psychopathology using the same instruments. The reason for this is, first, that family history increases the likelihood of an ADHD diagnosis and, perhaps more importantly, presence of family psychopathology makes treatment more difficult. This is because the treatment you will prescribe is going to actively involve the parents.
The treatment of choice for preschool ADHD, based on practice parameters and expert opinion, is to start with family-based behavioral treatments. There are now several empirically-based treatments that have shown efficacy for the symptoms of inattention and hyperactivity-impulsivity in preschoolers. These include Triple P (“Practitioner’s Manual for Enhanced Triple P” [Brisbane: Families International Publishing, 1998]), The Incredible Years (Webster-Stratton & Hancock, 1998), and the Revised New Forest Parent Program (Daley & Thompson, 2007), among others. If these are not available in your community, other options would be “Helping the noncompliant child: A clinician’s guide to effective parent training,” 2nd ed. (The Guilford Press: New York, 2003) or any other empirically-based parent training program. This is why it is critical to engage the parents in treatment and to refer them for treatment for their own psychopathology, if present. Furthermore, engaging the family in a program of wellness (freedom from substances, enhanced nutrition, avoidance of artificial food coloring, increased exercise), has less of a research base, but the available evidence is that it is helpful.
If medications become necessary because of safety concerns, there are few options that have a Food and Drug Administration indication. Those that do have an indication for disruptive behavior below the age of 5 years (haloperidol, dextroamphetamine, chlorpromazine, and risperidone) should not be considered as first line. The PATS study demonstrated the safety and efficacy of methylphenidate, but with optimal doses lower than those seen in school-aged children (0.7 mg/kg per day) and with increased numbers of adverse effects (11% discontinuing) (J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry 2006;45:1284-93; J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry 2006;45:1294-303).
Because of the increased amount of side effects, medication treatment cannot be considered as the first treatment. Treatment with nonstimulants is poorly studied. Any treatment with methylphenidate would be considered off-label prescribing, which must be done with great caution and, preferably, in consultation with a child and adolescent psychiatrist.
The diagnosis and management of ADHD in the very young is tricky, but possible. Doing a comprehensive evaluation with information from multiple informants, assessing and treating the parents for psychopathology, engaging the family in wellness, and starting with behavioral management is the way to go. If you feel that medication treatment is necessary for safety of the little ones, it’s best to consult, because none of the medications with FDA indication are likely to be the answer.
Dr. Althoff is associate professor of psychiatry, psychology, and pediatrics at the University of Vermont, Burlington. He is director of the division of behavioral genetics and conducts research on the development of self-regulation in children. Dr. Althoff receives no funding from pharmaceutical companies or industry. He has grant funding from the National Institute of General Medical Sciences and the Klingenstein Third Generation Foundation, and is employed, in part, by the nonprofit Research Center for Children, Youth, and Families that develops the Child Behavior Checklist and associated instruments. E-mail him at [email protected].
Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) has been identified in children, and appropriate treatments studied now for over half a century. The vast majority of cases that present for treatment do so after the child starts school and concerns are raised about ability to manage academics. Yet, when asked when the symptoms first began, many parents will describe onset prior to the school years – in the preschool period. But identification of ADHD in preschoolers can be difficult because of the developmental changes that are ongoing during the period from 3 to 5 years. Many of the symptoms that one would attribute to ADHD, such as increased motor activity, inattention, and distractibility are commonplace in this age group. Furthermore, some behaviors commonly associated with ADHD, such as emotional lability and obstinacy, are nearly synonymous with being a preschooler. So, how is the diagnosis made? When is it appropriate to treat? And what would that treatment look like? The following case, where symptoms of preschool ADHD go beyond typical development, provides some guides for treatment based on the evolving literature regarding preschool ADHD.
Case Summary
Johnny is a 4-year-old boy who was the product of a complicated pregnancy and delivery. Born at 35 weeks to a 17-year-old mother with a history of tobacco use disorder and depression, he spent several weeks in the special care nursery before leaving the hospital with his mother. His early temperament was described as being “difficult” with frequent episodes of colic and trouble establishing a sleep routine. His father had a history of conduct problems and school failure, and would come in and out of the family for the first 3 years. Lately, he had moved in with Johnny and his mother, and they were trying to “make a go of it.” Johnny had been slightly behind in his developmental milestones – particularly his language – but by 4 years he was able to speak in simple sentences, was able to name his colors, and had started copying circles and squares.
His parents bring Johnny in for an appointment that they made specifically to discuss his activity level and the question of ADHD, which has been brought up by multiple family members and his preschool teacher. They describe some behaviors that you have not heard about previously because they had assumed that “this is what boys did.” At age 3 years, he impulsively ran into the road after being told “no” and was nearly struck by a car. He continually tries to put things into the toaster, and they have had to get “industrial strength” plug covers because he tries to pry them off with a kitchen knife. On multiple occasions, his mother has locked herself in her bedroom because he wouldn’t stop talking to her and she couldn’t stand it anymore. When this happens, she checks often to make sure Johnny is safe, but then calls Johnny’s father home from his job as a delivery driver because she’s at her limit. In fact, Johnny’s father has been called to the preschool to bring Johnny home so many times that his father is in danger of losing his job. While Johnny appears to be a good athlete, he is often picked last for teams because he doesn’t pay attention in the game and likes to “play his own game” of tackling the other children. The stress of raising Johnny is weighing on the parents’ relationship, and Johnny’s father is considering moving out again. The parents ask for an assessment and treatment, preferably with medication.
Case Discussion
Johnny very likely has ADHD. However, to take appropriate caution in the diagnosis, one would consider that he needs to have six of nine criteria of inattention (being careless, difficulty sustaining attention, not listening, not following through, avoiding hard mental tasks, not organizing, losing important items, being easily distractible, and being forgetful) and/or six of nine criteria of hyperactivity/impulsivity (squirming/fidgeting, can’t stay seated, running or climbing excessively, can’t play quietly, “driven by a motor,” talking excessively, blurting out answers, not waiting his turn, and interrupting/intruding on others). As with school-aged ADHD, there need to be symptoms that are frequent (“often”) and that interfere with home, academic, or occupational function. One must take into account the base rate for these symptoms in preschoolers. For example, Willoughby and colleagues (J. Abnorm. Child Psychol. 2012;40:1301-12) demonstrated that at age 4 years, 26.3% of children fidget or squirm, 39.5% act as if “driven by a motor,” 46.3% talk excessively, 28.8% are easily distracted, and 25.4% have difficult waiting their turn. In fact, on average, a 4-year-old will have 1.3 inattentive items and 2.4 hyperactive-impulsive items. Still, Johnny seems to have more than his fair share. This can be validated by a) doing a careful evaluation over time using multiple informants, b) taking a family history, c) looking at developmental signs and ruling out other developmental disorders, d) making physical observations in the office (although these can be deceiving) and e) having the parents and others complete parent and caregiver checklists.
When asking parents and caregivers to complete checklists, it is crucial to make sure that these checklists look for symptoms other than just ADHD, because there are often co-occurring symptoms and disorders. These include oppositional defiant disorder, anxiety, obsessive compulsive disorder, depressive disorders, autism spectrum disorders, trauma, and learning/communication disorders. In fact, the Preschool ADHD Treatment Study (PATS) demonstrated that 71.5% of children with preschool ADHD had at least one other diagnosis and 29.7% had two or more (J. Child Adolesc. Psychopharmacol. 2007;17:563-80). Use of a broad-based instrument that captures all of these domains, in addition to attention, is warranted. In our clinic, we also assess the parents for psychopathology using the same instruments. The reason for this is, first, that family history increases the likelihood of an ADHD diagnosis and, perhaps more importantly, presence of family psychopathology makes treatment more difficult. This is because the treatment you will prescribe is going to actively involve the parents.
The treatment of choice for preschool ADHD, based on practice parameters and expert opinion, is to start with family-based behavioral treatments. There are now several empirically-based treatments that have shown efficacy for the symptoms of inattention and hyperactivity-impulsivity in preschoolers. These include Triple P (“Practitioner’s Manual for Enhanced Triple P” [Brisbane: Families International Publishing, 1998]), The Incredible Years (Webster-Stratton & Hancock, 1998), and the Revised New Forest Parent Program (Daley & Thompson, 2007), among others. If these are not available in your community, other options would be “Helping the noncompliant child: A clinician’s guide to effective parent training,” 2nd ed. (The Guilford Press: New York, 2003) or any other empirically-based parent training program. This is why it is critical to engage the parents in treatment and to refer them for treatment for their own psychopathology, if present. Furthermore, engaging the family in a program of wellness (freedom from substances, enhanced nutrition, avoidance of artificial food coloring, increased exercise), has less of a research base, but the available evidence is that it is helpful.
If medications become necessary because of safety concerns, there are few options that have a Food and Drug Administration indication. Those that do have an indication for disruptive behavior below the age of 5 years (haloperidol, dextroamphetamine, chlorpromazine, and risperidone) should not be considered as first line. The PATS study demonstrated the safety and efficacy of methylphenidate, but with optimal doses lower than those seen in school-aged children (0.7 mg/kg per day) and with increased numbers of adverse effects (11% discontinuing) (J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry 2006;45:1284-93; J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry 2006;45:1294-303).
Because of the increased amount of side effects, medication treatment cannot be considered as the first treatment. Treatment with nonstimulants is poorly studied. Any treatment with methylphenidate would be considered off-label prescribing, which must be done with great caution and, preferably, in consultation with a child and adolescent psychiatrist.
The diagnosis and management of ADHD in the very young is tricky, but possible. Doing a comprehensive evaluation with information from multiple informants, assessing and treating the parents for psychopathology, engaging the family in wellness, and starting with behavioral management is the way to go. If you feel that medication treatment is necessary for safety of the little ones, it’s best to consult, because none of the medications with FDA indication are likely to be the answer.
Dr. Althoff is associate professor of psychiatry, psychology, and pediatrics at the University of Vermont, Burlington. He is director of the division of behavioral genetics and conducts research on the development of self-regulation in children. Dr. Althoff receives no funding from pharmaceutical companies or industry. He has grant funding from the National Institute of General Medical Sciences and the Klingenstein Third Generation Foundation, and is employed, in part, by the nonprofit Research Center for Children, Youth, and Families that develops the Child Behavior Checklist and associated instruments. E-mail him at [email protected].
Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) has been identified in children, and appropriate treatments studied now for over half a century. The vast majority of cases that present for treatment do so after the child starts school and concerns are raised about ability to manage academics. Yet, when asked when the symptoms first began, many parents will describe onset prior to the school years – in the preschool period. But identification of ADHD in preschoolers can be difficult because of the developmental changes that are ongoing during the period from 3 to 5 years. Many of the symptoms that one would attribute to ADHD, such as increased motor activity, inattention, and distractibility are commonplace in this age group. Furthermore, some behaviors commonly associated with ADHD, such as emotional lability and obstinacy, are nearly synonymous with being a preschooler. So, how is the diagnosis made? When is it appropriate to treat? And what would that treatment look like? The following case, where symptoms of preschool ADHD go beyond typical development, provides some guides for treatment based on the evolving literature regarding preschool ADHD.
Case Summary
Johnny is a 4-year-old boy who was the product of a complicated pregnancy and delivery. Born at 35 weeks to a 17-year-old mother with a history of tobacco use disorder and depression, he spent several weeks in the special care nursery before leaving the hospital with his mother. His early temperament was described as being “difficult” with frequent episodes of colic and trouble establishing a sleep routine. His father had a history of conduct problems and school failure, and would come in and out of the family for the first 3 years. Lately, he had moved in with Johnny and his mother, and they were trying to “make a go of it.” Johnny had been slightly behind in his developmental milestones – particularly his language – but by 4 years he was able to speak in simple sentences, was able to name his colors, and had started copying circles and squares.
His parents bring Johnny in for an appointment that they made specifically to discuss his activity level and the question of ADHD, which has been brought up by multiple family members and his preschool teacher. They describe some behaviors that you have not heard about previously because they had assumed that “this is what boys did.” At age 3 years, he impulsively ran into the road after being told “no” and was nearly struck by a car. He continually tries to put things into the toaster, and they have had to get “industrial strength” plug covers because he tries to pry them off with a kitchen knife. On multiple occasions, his mother has locked herself in her bedroom because he wouldn’t stop talking to her and she couldn’t stand it anymore. When this happens, she checks often to make sure Johnny is safe, but then calls Johnny’s father home from his job as a delivery driver because she’s at her limit. In fact, Johnny’s father has been called to the preschool to bring Johnny home so many times that his father is in danger of losing his job. While Johnny appears to be a good athlete, he is often picked last for teams because he doesn’t pay attention in the game and likes to “play his own game” of tackling the other children. The stress of raising Johnny is weighing on the parents’ relationship, and Johnny’s father is considering moving out again. The parents ask for an assessment and treatment, preferably with medication.
Case Discussion
Johnny very likely has ADHD. However, to take appropriate caution in the diagnosis, one would consider that he needs to have six of nine criteria of inattention (being careless, difficulty sustaining attention, not listening, not following through, avoiding hard mental tasks, not organizing, losing important items, being easily distractible, and being forgetful) and/or six of nine criteria of hyperactivity/impulsivity (squirming/fidgeting, can’t stay seated, running or climbing excessively, can’t play quietly, “driven by a motor,” talking excessively, blurting out answers, not waiting his turn, and interrupting/intruding on others). As with school-aged ADHD, there need to be symptoms that are frequent (“often”) and that interfere with home, academic, or occupational function. One must take into account the base rate for these symptoms in preschoolers. For example, Willoughby and colleagues (J. Abnorm. Child Psychol. 2012;40:1301-12) demonstrated that at age 4 years, 26.3% of children fidget or squirm, 39.5% act as if “driven by a motor,” 46.3% talk excessively, 28.8% are easily distracted, and 25.4% have difficult waiting their turn. In fact, on average, a 4-year-old will have 1.3 inattentive items and 2.4 hyperactive-impulsive items. Still, Johnny seems to have more than his fair share. This can be validated by a) doing a careful evaluation over time using multiple informants, b) taking a family history, c) looking at developmental signs and ruling out other developmental disorders, d) making physical observations in the office (although these can be deceiving) and e) having the parents and others complete parent and caregiver checklists.
When asking parents and caregivers to complete checklists, it is crucial to make sure that these checklists look for symptoms other than just ADHD, because there are often co-occurring symptoms and disorders. These include oppositional defiant disorder, anxiety, obsessive compulsive disorder, depressive disorders, autism spectrum disorders, trauma, and learning/communication disorders. In fact, the Preschool ADHD Treatment Study (PATS) demonstrated that 71.5% of children with preschool ADHD had at least one other diagnosis and 29.7% had two or more (J. Child Adolesc. Psychopharmacol. 2007;17:563-80). Use of a broad-based instrument that captures all of these domains, in addition to attention, is warranted. In our clinic, we also assess the parents for psychopathology using the same instruments. The reason for this is, first, that family history increases the likelihood of an ADHD diagnosis and, perhaps more importantly, presence of family psychopathology makes treatment more difficult. This is because the treatment you will prescribe is going to actively involve the parents.
The treatment of choice for preschool ADHD, based on practice parameters and expert opinion, is to start with family-based behavioral treatments. There are now several empirically-based treatments that have shown efficacy for the symptoms of inattention and hyperactivity-impulsivity in preschoolers. These include Triple P (“Practitioner’s Manual for Enhanced Triple P” [Brisbane: Families International Publishing, 1998]), The Incredible Years (Webster-Stratton & Hancock, 1998), and the Revised New Forest Parent Program (Daley & Thompson, 2007), among others. If these are not available in your community, other options would be “Helping the noncompliant child: A clinician’s guide to effective parent training,” 2nd ed. (The Guilford Press: New York, 2003) or any other empirically-based parent training program. This is why it is critical to engage the parents in treatment and to refer them for treatment for their own psychopathology, if present. Furthermore, engaging the family in a program of wellness (freedom from substances, enhanced nutrition, avoidance of artificial food coloring, increased exercise), has less of a research base, but the available evidence is that it is helpful.
If medications become necessary because of safety concerns, there are few options that have a Food and Drug Administration indication. Those that do have an indication for disruptive behavior below the age of 5 years (haloperidol, dextroamphetamine, chlorpromazine, and risperidone) should not be considered as first line. The PATS study demonstrated the safety and efficacy of methylphenidate, but with optimal doses lower than those seen in school-aged children (0.7 mg/kg per day) and with increased numbers of adverse effects (11% discontinuing) (J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry 2006;45:1284-93; J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry 2006;45:1294-303).
Because of the increased amount of side effects, medication treatment cannot be considered as the first treatment. Treatment with nonstimulants is poorly studied. Any treatment with methylphenidate would be considered off-label prescribing, which must be done with great caution and, preferably, in consultation with a child and adolescent psychiatrist.
The diagnosis and management of ADHD in the very young is tricky, but possible. Doing a comprehensive evaluation with information from multiple informants, assessing and treating the parents for psychopathology, engaging the family in wellness, and starting with behavioral management is the way to go. If you feel that medication treatment is necessary for safety of the little ones, it’s best to consult, because none of the medications with FDA indication are likely to be the answer.
Dr. Althoff is associate professor of psychiatry, psychology, and pediatrics at the University of Vermont, Burlington. He is director of the division of behavioral genetics and conducts research on the development of self-regulation in children. Dr. Althoff receives no funding from pharmaceutical companies or industry. He has grant funding from the National Institute of General Medical Sciences and the Klingenstein Third Generation Foundation, and is employed, in part, by the nonprofit Research Center for Children, Youth, and Families that develops the Child Behavior Checklist and associated instruments. E-mail him at [email protected].
When is it bipolar disorder and when is it DMDD?
Introduction
In the last 20 years there has been a marked rise in the number of children and adolescents receiving the diagnosis of bipolar disorder (BD) – a mood disorder that, classically, involves cycling between episodes of elevated mood and episodes of low mood (Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 2207;64:1032-9). The increase in diagnosis is partly explained by the inclusion of children with chronic irritability being diagnosed with BD. This has led to concern about the subsequent use of approved second-generation antipsychotics for chronically irritable children, with the resultant side effects.
A new diagnosis called disruptive mood dysregulation disorder (DMDD) was introduced into the DSM-5 to describe these chronically irritable children and, in part, to reduce the number of children receiving a bipolar diagnosis. So, how does one know whether a child has BD, DMDD, or something else? The two brief cases that follow distinguish the difference between BD and DMDD.
Case 1 summary
Joseph is a 15-year-old boy with a history of childhood depression. About 1 year ago, he began to appear more irritable and anxious. Despite his parents’ prohibition, he was going out at night and was intoxicated on several occasions when he came home – something he had never done before. After about 2 weeks of this, he began going to bed at midnight, but would be up again by 4 a.m. talking to himself, playing music, or exercising. He was hanging out with a different crowd. He began to talk about the possibility of becoming part of a motorcycle gang – at some point perhaps the leader of Hells Angels. Slowly, this resolved. However, these symptoms recurred about 1 month ago with progressive worsening, again, and 2 days ago he stopped sleeping at all. He has been locking himself in his room, talking rapidly and excessively about motorcycles, complaining that he “just needed to get his thoughts together.” He was very distractible and was not eating. His mother called his primary care clinician who advised her to bring him to the ED, which she could do only by police because he refused to leave the home, complaining of the “noises” outside.
Case 1 discussion
Joseph most likely has bipolar I disorder, although a substance-induced mania will have to be ruled out. His symptoms are classic for what we think of as “narrow phenotypic” mania – elated and irritable mood, grandiosity, flight of ideas, decreased need for sleep, hypertalkativeness, increase in goal-directed activity, severe distractibility, and excessive involvement in activities that are likely to have painful consequences. These episodes are a clear change from baseline. Here, Joseph has been previously depressed, but never had symptoms like this that came, went, and then returned. If these manic symptoms continue for 1 week or longer, or are so severe as to require him to be hospitalized, these are a manic episode, which, essentially, makes the diagnosis of bipolar I disorder. Most clinicians have seen mania in late adolescence and early adulthood and can distinguish when these episodes occur in childhood. There is less ambiguity about this diagnosis when it occurs with frank mania.
Case 2 summary
Henry is a 12-year-old boy. His parents say that he’s been difficult since he was “in the womb.” Starting at about the age of 4 years, they started to notice that he would frequently become moody – lasting almost all day in a way that was noticed by everyone. He remains almost constantly irritable. He responds extremely to negative emotional stimuli, like when he got so upset about striking out at a Little League game last year that he had a 15-minute temper outburst that couldn’t be stopped. When his father removed him from the field to the car, he kicked out a window. These types of events are not uncommon, occurring four to five times per week, and are associated with verbal and physical aggression. There have been no symptom-free periods since age 4 years. There have been no clear episodes, and nothing that could be described as elation.
Case 2 discussion
Henry would very likely meet the criteria for the DSM-5 diagnosis of disruptive mood dysregulation disorder. DMDD requires that there be severe and recurrent temper outbursts that can be verbal or physical and are grossly out of proportion to the situation, happening at least three times a week for the past year. In between these outbursts, the child’s mood is angry or irritable, most of the day, nearly every day with no time longer than 3 months in the last year without symptoms. There cannot be symptoms of mania or hypomania. DMDD should be distinguished from oppositional-defiant disorder (ODD), which cannot be diagnosed concurrently. ODD has similar characteristics, but the temper outbursts are not as severe, frequent, or chronic. The mood symptoms in DMDD predominate, while oppositionality predominates in ODD. Note the chronicity of irritable mood in DMDD. This is the distinguishing characteristic of the disorder – chronic, nonepisodic irritability.
General discussion
The distinction between BD and DMDD does matter, but it is sometimes quite hard to draw a clear line – even for the experts. It can be easy to be frustrated with yourself as a clinician when you’re unable to come to a clear decision about the diagnosis. With mood disorders in children, however, it’s important not to attribute the field’s lack of clarity to your own lack of knowledge. In these difficult cases, it’s highly likely that even the experts would disagree. Making the distinction between bipolar disorder and DMDD becomes even more complex in the situation of “other specified bipolar and related disorders,” which allows for short or subsyndromal hypomanic episodes with major depression, hypomania without depression, or short-duration cyclothymia. These cases, formerly called “bipolar, not otherwise specified,” are more likely to progress to adult bipolar disorder I or II. DMDD, on the other hand, is more likely to progress to adult depression (Biol. Psychiatry 2006;60:991-7).
Why does the distinction matter? Because the treatment for bipolar disorder is likely to involve one of the traditional mood stabilizers or the second-generation antipsychotics that are Food and Drug Administration–approved for bipolar disorder along with family education and cognitive-behavioral therapy. However, there is no evidence at this time that the management of DMDD should consist of these same treatments. In fact, a trial of lithium for DMDD (actually, its research predecessor severe mood dysregulation) was negative (J. Child. Adolesc. Psychopharmacol. 2009;19:61-73). While we are still working out how to help children with DMDD, the current trials being done are examining the use of antidepressants and psychostimulants (either serially or in combination) along with family-based interventions similar to those used for ODD. These are tough cases, and frequently a consult with a child psychiatrist or psychologist will be helpful.
Dr. Althoff is an associate professor of psychiatry, psychology, and pediatrics at the University of Vermont, Burlington. He is director of the division of behavioral genetics and conducts research on the development of self-regulation in children. Dr. Althoff has received grants/research support from the National Institute of Mental Health, the National Institute of General Medical Sciences, the Research Center for Children, Youth, and Families, and the Klingenstein Third Generation Foundation, and honoraria from the Oakstone General Publishing for CME presentations. E-mail him at [email protected].
Introduction
In the last 20 years there has been a marked rise in the number of children and adolescents receiving the diagnosis of bipolar disorder (BD) – a mood disorder that, classically, involves cycling between episodes of elevated mood and episodes of low mood (Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 2207;64:1032-9). The increase in diagnosis is partly explained by the inclusion of children with chronic irritability being diagnosed with BD. This has led to concern about the subsequent use of approved second-generation antipsychotics for chronically irritable children, with the resultant side effects.
A new diagnosis called disruptive mood dysregulation disorder (DMDD) was introduced into the DSM-5 to describe these chronically irritable children and, in part, to reduce the number of children receiving a bipolar diagnosis. So, how does one know whether a child has BD, DMDD, or something else? The two brief cases that follow distinguish the difference between BD and DMDD.
Case 1 summary
Joseph is a 15-year-old boy with a history of childhood depression. About 1 year ago, he began to appear more irritable and anxious. Despite his parents’ prohibition, he was going out at night and was intoxicated on several occasions when he came home – something he had never done before. After about 2 weeks of this, he began going to bed at midnight, but would be up again by 4 a.m. talking to himself, playing music, or exercising. He was hanging out with a different crowd. He began to talk about the possibility of becoming part of a motorcycle gang – at some point perhaps the leader of Hells Angels. Slowly, this resolved. However, these symptoms recurred about 1 month ago with progressive worsening, again, and 2 days ago he stopped sleeping at all. He has been locking himself in his room, talking rapidly and excessively about motorcycles, complaining that he “just needed to get his thoughts together.” He was very distractible and was not eating. His mother called his primary care clinician who advised her to bring him to the ED, which she could do only by police because he refused to leave the home, complaining of the “noises” outside.
Case 1 discussion
Joseph most likely has bipolar I disorder, although a substance-induced mania will have to be ruled out. His symptoms are classic for what we think of as “narrow phenotypic” mania – elated and irritable mood, grandiosity, flight of ideas, decreased need for sleep, hypertalkativeness, increase in goal-directed activity, severe distractibility, and excessive involvement in activities that are likely to have painful consequences. These episodes are a clear change from baseline. Here, Joseph has been previously depressed, but never had symptoms like this that came, went, and then returned. If these manic symptoms continue for 1 week or longer, or are so severe as to require him to be hospitalized, these are a manic episode, which, essentially, makes the diagnosis of bipolar I disorder. Most clinicians have seen mania in late adolescence and early adulthood and can distinguish when these episodes occur in childhood. There is less ambiguity about this diagnosis when it occurs with frank mania.
Case 2 summary
Henry is a 12-year-old boy. His parents say that he’s been difficult since he was “in the womb.” Starting at about the age of 4 years, they started to notice that he would frequently become moody – lasting almost all day in a way that was noticed by everyone. He remains almost constantly irritable. He responds extremely to negative emotional stimuli, like when he got so upset about striking out at a Little League game last year that he had a 15-minute temper outburst that couldn’t be stopped. When his father removed him from the field to the car, he kicked out a window. These types of events are not uncommon, occurring four to five times per week, and are associated with verbal and physical aggression. There have been no symptom-free periods since age 4 years. There have been no clear episodes, and nothing that could be described as elation.
Case 2 discussion
Henry would very likely meet the criteria for the DSM-5 diagnosis of disruptive mood dysregulation disorder. DMDD requires that there be severe and recurrent temper outbursts that can be verbal or physical and are grossly out of proportion to the situation, happening at least three times a week for the past year. In between these outbursts, the child’s mood is angry or irritable, most of the day, nearly every day with no time longer than 3 months in the last year without symptoms. There cannot be symptoms of mania or hypomania. DMDD should be distinguished from oppositional-defiant disorder (ODD), which cannot be diagnosed concurrently. ODD has similar characteristics, but the temper outbursts are not as severe, frequent, or chronic. The mood symptoms in DMDD predominate, while oppositionality predominates in ODD. Note the chronicity of irritable mood in DMDD. This is the distinguishing characteristic of the disorder – chronic, nonepisodic irritability.
General discussion
The distinction between BD and DMDD does matter, but it is sometimes quite hard to draw a clear line – even for the experts. It can be easy to be frustrated with yourself as a clinician when you’re unable to come to a clear decision about the diagnosis. With mood disorders in children, however, it’s important not to attribute the field’s lack of clarity to your own lack of knowledge. In these difficult cases, it’s highly likely that even the experts would disagree. Making the distinction between bipolar disorder and DMDD becomes even more complex in the situation of “other specified bipolar and related disorders,” which allows for short or subsyndromal hypomanic episodes with major depression, hypomania without depression, or short-duration cyclothymia. These cases, formerly called “bipolar, not otherwise specified,” are more likely to progress to adult bipolar disorder I or II. DMDD, on the other hand, is more likely to progress to adult depression (Biol. Psychiatry 2006;60:991-7).
Why does the distinction matter? Because the treatment for bipolar disorder is likely to involve one of the traditional mood stabilizers or the second-generation antipsychotics that are Food and Drug Administration–approved for bipolar disorder along with family education and cognitive-behavioral therapy. However, there is no evidence at this time that the management of DMDD should consist of these same treatments. In fact, a trial of lithium for DMDD (actually, its research predecessor severe mood dysregulation) was negative (J. Child. Adolesc. Psychopharmacol. 2009;19:61-73). While we are still working out how to help children with DMDD, the current trials being done are examining the use of antidepressants and psychostimulants (either serially or in combination) along with family-based interventions similar to those used for ODD. These are tough cases, and frequently a consult with a child psychiatrist or psychologist will be helpful.
Dr. Althoff is an associate professor of psychiatry, psychology, and pediatrics at the University of Vermont, Burlington. He is director of the division of behavioral genetics and conducts research on the development of self-regulation in children. Dr. Althoff has received grants/research support from the National Institute of Mental Health, the National Institute of General Medical Sciences, the Research Center for Children, Youth, and Families, and the Klingenstein Third Generation Foundation, and honoraria from the Oakstone General Publishing for CME presentations. E-mail him at [email protected].
Introduction
In the last 20 years there has been a marked rise in the number of children and adolescents receiving the diagnosis of bipolar disorder (BD) – a mood disorder that, classically, involves cycling between episodes of elevated mood and episodes of low mood (Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 2207;64:1032-9). The increase in diagnosis is partly explained by the inclusion of children with chronic irritability being diagnosed with BD. This has led to concern about the subsequent use of approved second-generation antipsychotics for chronically irritable children, with the resultant side effects.
A new diagnosis called disruptive mood dysregulation disorder (DMDD) was introduced into the DSM-5 to describe these chronically irritable children and, in part, to reduce the number of children receiving a bipolar diagnosis. So, how does one know whether a child has BD, DMDD, or something else? The two brief cases that follow distinguish the difference between BD and DMDD.
Case 1 summary
Joseph is a 15-year-old boy with a history of childhood depression. About 1 year ago, he began to appear more irritable and anxious. Despite his parents’ prohibition, he was going out at night and was intoxicated on several occasions when he came home – something he had never done before. After about 2 weeks of this, he began going to bed at midnight, but would be up again by 4 a.m. talking to himself, playing music, or exercising. He was hanging out with a different crowd. He began to talk about the possibility of becoming part of a motorcycle gang – at some point perhaps the leader of Hells Angels. Slowly, this resolved. However, these symptoms recurred about 1 month ago with progressive worsening, again, and 2 days ago he stopped sleeping at all. He has been locking himself in his room, talking rapidly and excessively about motorcycles, complaining that he “just needed to get his thoughts together.” He was very distractible and was not eating. His mother called his primary care clinician who advised her to bring him to the ED, which she could do only by police because he refused to leave the home, complaining of the “noises” outside.
Case 1 discussion
Joseph most likely has bipolar I disorder, although a substance-induced mania will have to be ruled out. His symptoms are classic for what we think of as “narrow phenotypic” mania – elated and irritable mood, grandiosity, flight of ideas, decreased need for sleep, hypertalkativeness, increase in goal-directed activity, severe distractibility, and excessive involvement in activities that are likely to have painful consequences. These episodes are a clear change from baseline. Here, Joseph has been previously depressed, but never had symptoms like this that came, went, and then returned. If these manic symptoms continue for 1 week or longer, or are so severe as to require him to be hospitalized, these are a manic episode, which, essentially, makes the diagnosis of bipolar I disorder. Most clinicians have seen mania in late adolescence and early adulthood and can distinguish when these episodes occur in childhood. There is less ambiguity about this diagnosis when it occurs with frank mania.
Case 2 summary
Henry is a 12-year-old boy. His parents say that he’s been difficult since he was “in the womb.” Starting at about the age of 4 years, they started to notice that he would frequently become moody – lasting almost all day in a way that was noticed by everyone. He remains almost constantly irritable. He responds extremely to negative emotional stimuli, like when he got so upset about striking out at a Little League game last year that he had a 15-minute temper outburst that couldn’t be stopped. When his father removed him from the field to the car, he kicked out a window. These types of events are not uncommon, occurring four to five times per week, and are associated with verbal and physical aggression. There have been no symptom-free periods since age 4 years. There have been no clear episodes, and nothing that could be described as elation.
Case 2 discussion
Henry would very likely meet the criteria for the DSM-5 diagnosis of disruptive mood dysregulation disorder. DMDD requires that there be severe and recurrent temper outbursts that can be verbal or physical and are grossly out of proportion to the situation, happening at least three times a week for the past year. In between these outbursts, the child’s mood is angry or irritable, most of the day, nearly every day with no time longer than 3 months in the last year without symptoms. There cannot be symptoms of mania or hypomania. DMDD should be distinguished from oppositional-defiant disorder (ODD), which cannot be diagnosed concurrently. ODD has similar characteristics, but the temper outbursts are not as severe, frequent, or chronic. The mood symptoms in DMDD predominate, while oppositionality predominates in ODD. Note the chronicity of irritable mood in DMDD. This is the distinguishing characteristic of the disorder – chronic, nonepisodic irritability.
General discussion
The distinction between BD and DMDD does matter, but it is sometimes quite hard to draw a clear line – even for the experts. It can be easy to be frustrated with yourself as a clinician when you’re unable to come to a clear decision about the diagnosis. With mood disorders in children, however, it’s important not to attribute the field’s lack of clarity to your own lack of knowledge. In these difficult cases, it’s highly likely that even the experts would disagree. Making the distinction between bipolar disorder and DMDD becomes even more complex in the situation of “other specified bipolar and related disorders,” which allows for short or subsyndromal hypomanic episodes with major depression, hypomania without depression, or short-duration cyclothymia. These cases, formerly called “bipolar, not otherwise specified,” are more likely to progress to adult bipolar disorder I or II. DMDD, on the other hand, is more likely to progress to adult depression (Biol. Psychiatry 2006;60:991-7).
Why does the distinction matter? Because the treatment for bipolar disorder is likely to involve one of the traditional mood stabilizers or the second-generation antipsychotics that are Food and Drug Administration–approved for bipolar disorder along with family education and cognitive-behavioral therapy. However, there is no evidence at this time that the management of DMDD should consist of these same treatments. In fact, a trial of lithium for DMDD (actually, its research predecessor severe mood dysregulation) was negative (J. Child. Adolesc. Psychopharmacol. 2009;19:61-73). While we are still working out how to help children with DMDD, the current trials being done are examining the use of antidepressants and psychostimulants (either serially or in combination) along with family-based interventions similar to those used for ODD. These are tough cases, and frequently a consult with a child psychiatrist or psychologist will be helpful.
Dr. Althoff is an associate professor of psychiatry, psychology, and pediatrics at the University of Vermont, Burlington. He is director of the division of behavioral genetics and conducts research on the development of self-regulation in children. Dr. Althoff has received grants/research support from the National Institute of Mental Health, the National Institute of General Medical Sciences, the Research Center for Children, Youth, and Families, and the Klingenstein Third Generation Foundation, and honoraria from the Oakstone General Publishing for CME presentations. E-mail him at [email protected].
Aggression and angry outbursts
Introduction
Aggressive behavior is one of the most common child psychiatric symptoms for which parents seek help. The difficulty with managing aggressive behavior is determining whether it is out of the ordinary from typical child development and then assessing the causes of the behavior before tackling the tough job of intervening. The following case is typical of what might present to the pediatrics office and provides a few ideas for the assessment and management of aggressive behavior.
Case summary
Dakota is a 6-year-old boy who presents for a well-child check with his father, Joe. Dakota is just finishing his kindergarten year, and the teachers have expressed concerns about his behavior in the classroom and on the playground. They note that he is often irritable and touchy, and that he will frequently have aggressive outbursts, particularly when asked to do something that he doesn’t like. He will often interrupt other children’s games, and will force children to play by his rules with a threat of, or occasional use of, hitting. In the classroom, he has been removed multiple times to the principal’s office, where he will go only with marked reluctance. He has been noted by his teachers to have difficulty attending to the classroom instructions, and frequently removes himself during circle time. They allow him to do this to avoid a power struggle. Similarly, Joe notes that the entire family is "walking on eggshells" because they never know what might set him off. They’ve tried "everything," including time out, sticker charts, and spanking, but with little effect. Joe says that he was "just like Dakota" when he was a child, and that he was "straightened out" in the Army. He wonders if some kind of boot camp or "scared straight" program would help Dakota learn his lesson.
Discussion
Diagnosis. Irritability and aggression are common manifestations of multiple child psychiatric conditions. While it’s easy to jump to the conclusion that the patient has oppositional-defiant disorder (ODD) or conduct disorder (CD) and move straight to treatment, care must be taken to evaluate common causes and co-occurring disorders that might change the treatment plan.
The differential diagnosis includes a primary mood disorder like depression, other disruptive behavior disorders such as attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), a primary anxiety disorder, posttraumatic stress disorder, a learning or language disorder, and/or intellectual disability. One also must determine whether the aggression exhibited is greater than that shown by other boys his age. For this reason, the use of a scale that has normative values by age and sex makes sense. Having a standardized instrument filled out by parents and by the teachers also will help give an indication of how he is performing in multiple settings. Using a broad-based instrument that also covers mood, anxiety, and attention problems can be a quick and useful way to examine what type of co-occurring symptoms are present.
Aggression, while a heritable trait, also has a significant component from the environment. It is important to see how much of the aggression is being "caught, not taught" in the family setting. Querying as to the general level of negative, coercive parenting can be performed quickly by asking for a description of how the last outburst was managed – what the precipitant, the course, and the outcome were. Frequently, with ODD in particular, you will find a cycle of escalating threats and illogical consequences that serve to reinforce, rather than to reduce, aggressive and oppositional behavior. Practically, while the busy pediatrician may be able to manage some of this screening in a well-child check, it is likely that a separate appointment will be needed to go over the results of the screening instruments and to more fully assess the parenting environment.
At the scheduled visit designed to specifically assess the aggression:
• Make sure that both the parents and the child see this as a family-based problem. A treatment alliance with both parties is necessary to get the buy-in for any type of intervention that will occur.
• Assess the level of impairment. Are these outbursts severe only at home? In the school setting? With other people such as coaches or health care providers?
• Review the broadband screening instruments from multiple settings to make sure that this is a primary disruptive behavior disorder and not something else, particularly ADHD or a mood disorder, which will need to be managed differently.
• Determine if the aggressive behavior is impulsive/reactive or if it is planned/predatory. Is there remorse afterward (about the action, as opposed to remorse about being caught)? Lack of remorse could be an indicator of callous-unemotional traits, which have a worse prognosis.
Pearl: When asking about aggressive outbursts, make sure to concentrate not just on the outburst, but on the behavior and mood between outbursts. If the mood between outbursts is chronically irritable or sad, this might indicate a mood disorder rather than a primary disruptive behavior disorder.
Treatment. Treatment for aggressive behavior really calls for an "all hands on deck" family-based intervention. Parenting interventions will work best when the parents themselves are as healthy as they can be. Working with them to ensure that aggressive behavior, substance abuse, or anxiety is adequately treated through referral is an important step.
Next, the parenting interventions should involve those best informed by evidence-based practice, which typically include components of reducing the cycle of reinforcing aggressive behavior, noticing and rewarding prosocial behavior, and ceasing corporal punishment and replacing it with predictable, logical consequences for aggressive behavior. There are several excellent programs that therapists can use with parents, and referring to a therapist working with an evidence-based treatment program makes sense. There is a table listing parent management training packages that can be found in the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry (AACAP) Practice Parameters for ODD (J. Am. Acad. Child. Adolesc. Psychiatry 2007;46:126-41).
Wellness interventions such as ensuring hydration and adequate caloric intake can make a difference in the management of aggression. It’s harder to maintain control when you are concentrating on the grumbling of your stomach. Further, using exercise and sports as an intervention allows children to channel some of their negative aggressive impulses into positive, prosocial activities.
Pharmacotherapy is not indicated for ODD or CD, except to target co-occurring symptoms. For example, treatment of ADHD or anxiety can quite successfully reduce impulsive or reactive aggression, and can make it easier to treat the ODD or CD through parent management techniques. In very severe cases of aggression, treatment with other agents such as mood stabilizers or antipsychotics might be indicated, but this would likely be implemented only in consultation with a child and adolescent psychiatrist.
Finally, there is little to no evidence for a mock incarceration or boot camp approach with children who exhibit oppositional behavior. In fact, it’s very possible that these kinds of programs can make the behaviors worse (J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry 1999;38:1320-1; "Aggression and Antisocial Behavior in Children and Adolescents: Research and Treatment" [New York: The Guilford Press, 2002]).
When to consult? Uncomplicated aggressive behavior can be managed by the primary care team with consultation from a therapist using evidence-based approaches. If there is poor treatment response, or if the aggression is severe enough to cause serious physical injury, or if there is concern for a cycling mood disorder (such as bipolar disorder – a topic for a later column), then consultation with a child psychiatrist is likely appropriate.
Dr. Althoff is an associate professor of psychiatry, psychology, and pediatrics at the University of Vermont, Burlington. He is director of the division of behavioral genetics and conducts research on the development of self-regulation in children. Dr. Althoff has received grants/research support from the National Institute of Mental Health, the National Institute of General Medical Sciences, and the Klingenstein Third Generation Foundation, and honoraria from the Oakstone General Publishing for CME presentations.
Introduction
Aggressive behavior is one of the most common child psychiatric symptoms for which parents seek help. The difficulty with managing aggressive behavior is determining whether it is out of the ordinary from typical child development and then assessing the causes of the behavior before tackling the tough job of intervening. The following case is typical of what might present to the pediatrics office and provides a few ideas for the assessment and management of aggressive behavior.
Case summary
Dakota is a 6-year-old boy who presents for a well-child check with his father, Joe. Dakota is just finishing his kindergarten year, and the teachers have expressed concerns about his behavior in the classroom and on the playground. They note that he is often irritable and touchy, and that he will frequently have aggressive outbursts, particularly when asked to do something that he doesn’t like. He will often interrupt other children’s games, and will force children to play by his rules with a threat of, or occasional use of, hitting. In the classroom, he has been removed multiple times to the principal’s office, where he will go only with marked reluctance. He has been noted by his teachers to have difficulty attending to the classroom instructions, and frequently removes himself during circle time. They allow him to do this to avoid a power struggle. Similarly, Joe notes that the entire family is "walking on eggshells" because they never know what might set him off. They’ve tried "everything," including time out, sticker charts, and spanking, but with little effect. Joe says that he was "just like Dakota" when he was a child, and that he was "straightened out" in the Army. He wonders if some kind of boot camp or "scared straight" program would help Dakota learn his lesson.
Discussion
Diagnosis. Irritability and aggression are common manifestations of multiple child psychiatric conditions. While it’s easy to jump to the conclusion that the patient has oppositional-defiant disorder (ODD) or conduct disorder (CD) and move straight to treatment, care must be taken to evaluate common causes and co-occurring disorders that might change the treatment plan.
The differential diagnosis includes a primary mood disorder like depression, other disruptive behavior disorders such as attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), a primary anxiety disorder, posttraumatic stress disorder, a learning or language disorder, and/or intellectual disability. One also must determine whether the aggression exhibited is greater than that shown by other boys his age. For this reason, the use of a scale that has normative values by age and sex makes sense. Having a standardized instrument filled out by parents and by the teachers also will help give an indication of how he is performing in multiple settings. Using a broad-based instrument that also covers mood, anxiety, and attention problems can be a quick and useful way to examine what type of co-occurring symptoms are present.
Aggression, while a heritable trait, also has a significant component from the environment. It is important to see how much of the aggression is being "caught, not taught" in the family setting. Querying as to the general level of negative, coercive parenting can be performed quickly by asking for a description of how the last outburst was managed – what the precipitant, the course, and the outcome were. Frequently, with ODD in particular, you will find a cycle of escalating threats and illogical consequences that serve to reinforce, rather than to reduce, aggressive and oppositional behavior. Practically, while the busy pediatrician may be able to manage some of this screening in a well-child check, it is likely that a separate appointment will be needed to go over the results of the screening instruments and to more fully assess the parenting environment.
At the scheduled visit designed to specifically assess the aggression:
• Make sure that both the parents and the child see this as a family-based problem. A treatment alliance with both parties is necessary to get the buy-in for any type of intervention that will occur.
• Assess the level of impairment. Are these outbursts severe only at home? In the school setting? With other people such as coaches or health care providers?
• Review the broadband screening instruments from multiple settings to make sure that this is a primary disruptive behavior disorder and not something else, particularly ADHD or a mood disorder, which will need to be managed differently.
• Determine if the aggressive behavior is impulsive/reactive or if it is planned/predatory. Is there remorse afterward (about the action, as opposed to remorse about being caught)? Lack of remorse could be an indicator of callous-unemotional traits, which have a worse prognosis.
Pearl: When asking about aggressive outbursts, make sure to concentrate not just on the outburst, but on the behavior and mood between outbursts. If the mood between outbursts is chronically irritable or sad, this might indicate a mood disorder rather than a primary disruptive behavior disorder.
Treatment. Treatment for aggressive behavior really calls for an "all hands on deck" family-based intervention. Parenting interventions will work best when the parents themselves are as healthy as they can be. Working with them to ensure that aggressive behavior, substance abuse, or anxiety is adequately treated through referral is an important step.
Next, the parenting interventions should involve those best informed by evidence-based practice, which typically include components of reducing the cycle of reinforcing aggressive behavior, noticing and rewarding prosocial behavior, and ceasing corporal punishment and replacing it with predictable, logical consequences for aggressive behavior. There are several excellent programs that therapists can use with parents, and referring to a therapist working with an evidence-based treatment program makes sense. There is a table listing parent management training packages that can be found in the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry (AACAP) Practice Parameters for ODD (J. Am. Acad. Child. Adolesc. Psychiatry 2007;46:126-41).
Wellness interventions such as ensuring hydration and adequate caloric intake can make a difference in the management of aggression. It’s harder to maintain control when you are concentrating on the grumbling of your stomach. Further, using exercise and sports as an intervention allows children to channel some of their negative aggressive impulses into positive, prosocial activities.
Pharmacotherapy is not indicated for ODD or CD, except to target co-occurring symptoms. For example, treatment of ADHD or anxiety can quite successfully reduce impulsive or reactive aggression, and can make it easier to treat the ODD or CD through parent management techniques. In very severe cases of aggression, treatment with other agents such as mood stabilizers or antipsychotics might be indicated, but this would likely be implemented only in consultation with a child and adolescent psychiatrist.
Finally, there is little to no evidence for a mock incarceration or boot camp approach with children who exhibit oppositional behavior. In fact, it’s very possible that these kinds of programs can make the behaviors worse (J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry 1999;38:1320-1; "Aggression and Antisocial Behavior in Children and Adolescents: Research and Treatment" [New York: The Guilford Press, 2002]).
When to consult? Uncomplicated aggressive behavior can be managed by the primary care team with consultation from a therapist using evidence-based approaches. If there is poor treatment response, or if the aggression is severe enough to cause serious physical injury, or if there is concern for a cycling mood disorder (such as bipolar disorder – a topic for a later column), then consultation with a child psychiatrist is likely appropriate.
Dr. Althoff is an associate professor of psychiatry, psychology, and pediatrics at the University of Vermont, Burlington. He is director of the division of behavioral genetics and conducts research on the development of self-regulation in children. Dr. Althoff has received grants/research support from the National Institute of Mental Health, the National Institute of General Medical Sciences, and the Klingenstein Third Generation Foundation, and honoraria from the Oakstone General Publishing for CME presentations.
Introduction
Aggressive behavior is one of the most common child psychiatric symptoms for which parents seek help. The difficulty with managing aggressive behavior is determining whether it is out of the ordinary from typical child development and then assessing the causes of the behavior before tackling the tough job of intervening. The following case is typical of what might present to the pediatrics office and provides a few ideas for the assessment and management of aggressive behavior.
Case summary
Dakota is a 6-year-old boy who presents for a well-child check with his father, Joe. Dakota is just finishing his kindergarten year, and the teachers have expressed concerns about his behavior in the classroom and on the playground. They note that he is often irritable and touchy, and that he will frequently have aggressive outbursts, particularly when asked to do something that he doesn’t like. He will often interrupt other children’s games, and will force children to play by his rules with a threat of, or occasional use of, hitting. In the classroom, he has been removed multiple times to the principal’s office, where he will go only with marked reluctance. He has been noted by his teachers to have difficulty attending to the classroom instructions, and frequently removes himself during circle time. They allow him to do this to avoid a power struggle. Similarly, Joe notes that the entire family is "walking on eggshells" because they never know what might set him off. They’ve tried "everything," including time out, sticker charts, and spanking, but with little effect. Joe says that he was "just like Dakota" when he was a child, and that he was "straightened out" in the Army. He wonders if some kind of boot camp or "scared straight" program would help Dakota learn his lesson.
Discussion
Diagnosis. Irritability and aggression are common manifestations of multiple child psychiatric conditions. While it’s easy to jump to the conclusion that the patient has oppositional-defiant disorder (ODD) or conduct disorder (CD) and move straight to treatment, care must be taken to evaluate common causes and co-occurring disorders that might change the treatment plan.
The differential diagnosis includes a primary mood disorder like depression, other disruptive behavior disorders such as attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), a primary anxiety disorder, posttraumatic stress disorder, a learning or language disorder, and/or intellectual disability. One also must determine whether the aggression exhibited is greater than that shown by other boys his age. For this reason, the use of a scale that has normative values by age and sex makes sense. Having a standardized instrument filled out by parents and by the teachers also will help give an indication of how he is performing in multiple settings. Using a broad-based instrument that also covers mood, anxiety, and attention problems can be a quick and useful way to examine what type of co-occurring symptoms are present.
Aggression, while a heritable trait, also has a significant component from the environment. It is important to see how much of the aggression is being "caught, not taught" in the family setting. Querying as to the general level of negative, coercive parenting can be performed quickly by asking for a description of how the last outburst was managed – what the precipitant, the course, and the outcome were. Frequently, with ODD in particular, you will find a cycle of escalating threats and illogical consequences that serve to reinforce, rather than to reduce, aggressive and oppositional behavior. Practically, while the busy pediatrician may be able to manage some of this screening in a well-child check, it is likely that a separate appointment will be needed to go over the results of the screening instruments and to more fully assess the parenting environment.
At the scheduled visit designed to specifically assess the aggression:
• Make sure that both the parents and the child see this as a family-based problem. A treatment alliance with both parties is necessary to get the buy-in for any type of intervention that will occur.
• Assess the level of impairment. Are these outbursts severe only at home? In the school setting? With other people such as coaches or health care providers?
• Review the broadband screening instruments from multiple settings to make sure that this is a primary disruptive behavior disorder and not something else, particularly ADHD or a mood disorder, which will need to be managed differently.
• Determine if the aggressive behavior is impulsive/reactive or if it is planned/predatory. Is there remorse afterward (about the action, as opposed to remorse about being caught)? Lack of remorse could be an indicator of callous-unemotional traits, which have a worse prognosis.
Pearl: When asking about aggressive outbursts, make sure to concentrate not just on the outburst, but on the behavior and mood between outbursts. If the mood between outbursts is chronically irritable or sad, this might indicate a mood disorder rather than a primary disruptive behavior disorder.
Treatment. Treatment for aggressive behavior really calls for an "all hands on deck" family-based intervention. Parenting interventions will work best when the parents themselves are as healthy as they can be. Working with them to ensure that aggressive behavior, substance abuse, or anxiety is adequately treated through referral is an important step.
Next, the parenting interventions should involve those best informed by evidence-based practice, which typically include components of reducing the cycle of reinforcing aggressive behavior, noticing and rewarding prosocial behavior, and ceasing corporal punishment and replacing it with predictable, logical consequences for aggressive behavior. There are several excellent programs that therapists can use with parents, and referring to a therapist working with an evidence-based treatment program makes sense. There is a table listing parent management training packages that can be found in the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry (AACAP) Practice Parameters for ODD (J. Am. Acad. Child. Adolesc. Psychiatry 2007;46:126-41).
Wellness interventions such as ensuring hydration and adequate caloric intake can make a difference in the management of aggression. It’s harder to maintain control when you are concentrating on the grumbling of your stomach. Further, using exercise and sports as an intervention allows children to channel some of their negative aggressive impulses into positive, prosocial activities.
Pharmacotherapy is not indicated for ODD or CD, except to target co-occurring symptoms. For example, treatment of ADHD or anxiety can quite successfully reduce impulsive or reactive aggression, and can make it easier to treat the ODD or CD through parent management techniques. In very severe cases of aggression, treatment with other agents such as mood stabilizers or antipsychotics might be indicated, but this would likely be implemented only in consultation with a child and adolescent psychiatrist.
Finally, there is little to no evidence for a mock incarceration or boot camp approach with children who exhibit oppositional behavior. In fact, it’s very possible that these kinds of programs can make the behaviors worse (J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry 1999;38:1320-1; "Aggression and Antisocial Behavior in Children and Adolescents: Research and Treatment" [New York: The Guilford Press, 2002]).
When to consult? Uncomplicated aggressive behavior can be managed by the primary care team with consultation from a therapist using evidence-based approaches. If there is poor treatment response, or if the aggression is severe enough to cause serious physical injury, or if there is concern for a cycling mood disorder (such as bipolar disorder – a topic for a later column), then consultation with a child psychiatrist is likely appropriate.
Dr. Althoff is an associate professor of psychiatry, psychology, and pediatrics at the University of Vermont, Burlington. He is director of the division of behavioral genetics and conducts research on the development of self-regulation in children. Dr. Althoff has received grants/research support from the National Institute of Mental Health, the National Institute of General Medical Sciences, and the Klingenstein Third Generation Foundation, and honoraria from the Oakstone General Publishing for CME presentations.
