Folashade Omole, MD, FAAFP

THE CASE

A 62-year-old postmenopausal woman presented to the clinic as a new patient for her annual physical examination. She reported a 9-year history of symptoms including dysuria, post-void dribbling, dyspareunia, and urinary incontinence on review of systems. Her physical examination revealed an anterior vaginal wall bulge (FIGURE). Results of a urinalysis were negative. The patient was referred to Urology for further evaluation.

THE DIAGNOSIS

A pelvic magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scan revealed a large periurethral diverticulum with a horseshoe shape.

DISCUSSION

Urethral diverticulum is a permanent sac-like cavity projecting into the periurethral fascia arising from the posterior urethral lumen.¹ It is a rare condition that affects fewer than 20 per 1 million women per year.² Urethral diverticulum can range from 1 cm to 8 cm in diameter and is located in the mid or distal urethra.^1,3

Women are more likely than men to develop urethral diverticulum, and it can manifest at any age, usually in the third through seventh decade.^4,5 It was once thought to be more common in Black women, although the literature does not support this.⁶ Black women are 3 times more likely to be operated on than White women to treat urethral diverticula.⁷

Unknown origin. Most cases of urethral diverticulum are acquired; the etiology is uncertain.^8,9 The assumption is that urethral diverticulum occurs as a result of repeated infection of the periurethral glands with subsequent obstruction, abscess formation, and chronic inflammation.^1,2,4 Childbirth trauma, iatrogenic causes, and urethral instrumentation have also been implicated.^3,4 In rare cases of congenital urethral diverticula, the diverticula are thought to be remnants of Gartner duct cysts, and yet, incidence in the pediatric population is low.⁸

Diagnosis is confirmed through physical exam and imaging

The urethral diverticulum manifests anteriorly and palpation of the anterior vaginal wall may reveal a painful mass.¹⁰ A split-speculum is used for careful inspection and palpation of the anterior vaginal wall.⁹ If the diverticulum is found to be firm on palpation, or there is bloody urethral drainage, malignancy (although rare) must be ruled out.^4,5 Refer such patients to a urologist or urogynecologist.

The MRI, with or without endoluminal coil, is considered the gold standard in diagnosing urethral diverticulum.

Radiologic imaging (eg, ultrasound, voiding cystourethrography [VCUG], and MRI) is useful in detecting the size, location, and extent of the diverticulum, revealing the relationship to surrounding tissues, and providing insights for appropriate surgical management.^3,4,9 Ultrasound, which is usually readily available, noninvasive, and less expensive, can be considered for initial screening of suspected urethral diverticulum.^3,11 A postvoid MRI is recommended when a urethral diverticulum is highly suspected.^11,12 The MRI, with or without endoluminal coil, is considered the gold standard; it is a favorable complement to the work-up and offers the most diagnostic value.^3,4 According to a single-institution study, the MRI was 100% sensitive and specific in diagnosing urethral diverticulum.¹² However, the limitation of the MRI lies in its cost and lack of availability in some countries.¹³

Continue to: Nonspecific symptoms may lead to misdiagnosis

Nonspecific symptoms may lead to misdiagnosis. The symptoms associated with urethral diverticulum are diverse and linked to several differential diagnoses (TABLE).^3,4,12 The most common signs and symptoms are pelvic pain, urethral mass, dyspareunia, dysuria, urinary incontinence, and post-void dribbling—all of which are considered nonspecific.^3,10,11 These nonspecific symptoms (or even an absence of symptoms), along with a physician’s lack of familiarity with urethral diverticulum, can result in a misdiagnosis or even a delayed diagnosis (up to 5.2 years).^3,10

Managing symptoms vs preventing recurrence

Conservative management with antibiotics, anticholinergics, and/or observation is acceptable for patients with mild symptoms and those who are pregnant or who have a current infection or serious comorbidities that preclude surgery.^3,9 Complete excision of the urethral diverticulum with reconstruction is considered the most effective surgical management for symptom relief and recurrence prevention.^3,4,11,14

Our patient underwent a successful transvaginal suburethral diverticulectomy.

THE TAKEAWAY

The diagnosis of female urethral diverticulum is often delayed or misdiagnosed because symptoms are diverse and nonspecific. One should have a high degree of suspicion for urethral diverticulum in patients with dysuria, dyspareunia, pelvic pain, urinary incontinence, and irritative voiding symptoms who are not responding to conservative management. Ultrasound is an appropriate first-line imaging modality. However, a pelvic MRI is the most sensitive and specific in diagnosing urethral diverticulum.¹²

CORRESPONDENCE
Folashade Omole, MD, FAAFP, 720 Westview Drive, Atlanta, GA 30310; [email protected]

THE CASE

A 62-year-old postmenopausal woman presented to the clinic as a new patient for her annual physical examination. She reported a 9-year history of symptoms including dysuria, post-void dribbling, dyspareunia, and urinary incontinence on review of systems. Her physical examination revealed an anterior vaginal wall bulge (FIGURE). Results of a urinalysis were negative. The patient was referred to Urology for further evaluation.

THE DIAGNOSIS

A pelvic magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scan revealed a large periurethral diverticulum with a horseshoe shape.

DISCUSSION

Urethral diverticulum is a permanent sac-like cavity projecting into the periurethral fascia arising from the posterior urethral lumen.¹ It is a rare condition that affects fewer than 20 per 1 million women per year.² Urethral diverticulum can range from 1 cm to 8 cm in diameter and is located in the mid or distal urethra.^1,3

Women are more likely than men to develop urethral diverticulum, and it can manifest at any age, usually in the third through seventh decade.^4,5 It was once thought to be more common in Black women, although the literature does not support this.⁶ Black women are 3 times more likely to be operated on than White women to treat urethral diverticula.⁷

Unknown origin. Most cases of urethral diverticulum are acquired; the etiology is uncertain.^8,9 The assumption is that urethral diverticulum occurs as a result of repeated infection of the periurethral glands with subsequent obstruction, abscess formation, and chronic inflammation.^1,2,4 Childbirth trauma, iatrogenic causes, and urethral instrumentation have also been implicated.^3,4 In rare cases of congenital urethral diverticula, the diverticula are thought to be remnants of Gartner duct cysts, and yet, incidence in the pediatric population is low.⁸

Diagnosis is confirmed through physical exam and imaging

The urethral diverticulum manifests anteriorly and palpation of the anterior vaginal wall may reveal a painful mass.¹⁰ A split-speculum is used for careful inspection and palpation of the anterior vaginal wall.⁹ If the diverticulum is found to be firm on palpation, or there is bloody urethral drainage, malignancy (although rare) must be ruled out.^4,5 Refer such patients to a urologist or urogynecologist.

The MRI, with or without endoluminal coil, is considered the gold standard in diagnosing urethral diverticulum.

Radiologic imaging (eg, ultrasound, voiding cystourethrography [VCUG], and MRI) is useful in detecting the size, location, and extent of the diverticulum, revealing the relationship to surrounding tissues, and providing insights for appropriate surgical management.^3,4,9 Ultrasound, which is usually readily available, noninvasive, and less expensive, can be considered for initial screening of suspected urethral diverticulum.^3,11 A postvoid MRI is recommended when a urethral diverticulum is highly suspected.^11,12 The MRI, with or without endoluminal coil, is considered the gold standard; it is a favorable complement to the work-up and offers the most diagnostic value.^3,4 According to a single-institution study, the MRI was 100% sensitive and specific in diagnosing urethral diverticulum.¹² However, the limitation of the MRI lies in its cost and lack of availability in some countries.¹³

Continue to: Nonspecific symptoms may lead to misdiagnosis

Nonspecific symptoms may lead to misdiagnosis. The symptoms associated with urethral diverticulum are diverse and linked to several differential diagnoses (TABLE).^3,4,12 The most common signs and symptoms are pelvic pain, urethral mass, dyspareunia, dysuria, urinary incontinence, and post-void dribbling—all of which are considered nonspecific.^3,10,11 These nonspecific symptoms (or even an absence of symptoms), along with a physician’s lack of familiarity with urethral diverticulum, can result in a misdiagnosis or even a delayed diagnosis (up to 5.2 years).^3,10

Managing symptoms vs preventing recurrence

Conservative management with antibiotics, anticholinergics, and/or observation is acceptable for patients with mild symptoms and those who are pregnant or who have a current infection or serious comorbidities that preclude surgery.^3,9 Complete excision of the urethral diverticulum with reconstruction is considered the most effective surgical management for symptom relief and recurrence prevention.^3,4,11,14

Our patient underwent a successful transvaginal suburethral diverticulectomy.

THE TAKEAWAY

The diagnosis of female urethral diverticulum is often delayed or misdiagnosed because symptoms are diverse and nonspecific. One should have a high degree of suspicion for urethral diverticulum in patients with dysuria, dyspareunia, pelvic pain, urinary incontinence, and irritative voiding symptoms who are not responding to conservative management. Ultrasound is an appropriate first-line imaging modality. However, a pelvic MRI is the most sensitive and specific in diagnosing urethral diverticulum.¹²

CORRESPONDENCE
Folashade Omole, MD, FAAFP, 720 Westview Drive, Atlanta, GA 30310; [email protected]

THE CASE

A 62-year-old postmenopausal woman presented to the clinic as a new patient for her annual physical examination. She reported a 9-year history of symptoms including dysuria, post-void dribbling, dyspareunia, and urinary incontinence on review of systems. Her physical examination revealed an anterior vaginal wall bulge (FIGURE). Results of a urinalysis were negative. The patient was referred to Urology for further evaluation.

THE DIAGNOSIS

A pelvic magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scan revealed a large periurethral diverticulum with a horseshoe shape.

DISCUSSION

Urethral diverticulum is a permanent sac-like cavity projecting into the periurethral fascia arising from the posterior urethral lumen.¹ It is a rare condition that affects fewer than 20 per 1 million women per year.² Urethral diverticulum can range from 1 cm to 8 cm in diameter and is located in the mid or distal urethra.^1,3

Women are more likely than men to develop urethral diverticulum, and it can manifest at any age, usually in the third through seventh decade.^4,5 It was once thought to be more common in Black women, although the literature does not support this.⁶ Black women are 3 times more likely to be operated on than White women to treat urethral diverticula.⁷

Unknown origin. Most cases of urethral diverticulum are acquired; the etiology is uncertain.^8,9 The assumption is that urethral diverticulum occurs as a result of repeated infection of the periurethral glands with subsequent obstruction, abscess formation, and chronic inflammation.^1,2,4 Childbirth trauma, iatrogenic causes, and urethral instrumentation have also been implicated.^3,4 In rare cases of congenital urethral diverticula, the diverticula are thought to be remnants of Gartner duct cysts, and yet, incidence in the pediatric population is low.⁸

Diagnosis is confirmed through physical exam and imaging

The urethral diverticulum manifests anteriorly and palpation of the anterior vaginal wall may reveal a painful mass.¹⁰ A split-speculum is used for careful inspection and palpation of the anterior vaginal wall.⁹ If the diverticulum is found to be firm on palpation, or there is bloody urethral drainage, malignancy (although rare) must be ruled out.^4,5 Refer such patients to a urologist or urogynecologist.

The MRI, with or without endoluminal coil, is considered the gold standard in diagnosing urethral diverticulum.

Radiologic imaging (eg, ultrasound, voiding cystourethrography [VCUG], and MRI) is useful in detecting the size, location, and extent of the diverticulum, revealing the relationship to surrounding tissues, and providing insights for appropriate surgical management.^3,4,9 Ultrasound, which is usually readily available, noninvasive, and less expensive, can be considered for initial screening of suspected urethral diverticulum.^3,11 A postvoid MRI is recommended when a urethral diverticulum is highly suspected.^11,12 The MRI, with or without endoluminal coil, is considered the gold standard; it is a favorable complement to the work-up and offers the most diagnostic value.^3,4 According to a single-institution study, the MRI was 100% sensitive and specific in diagnosing urethral diverticulum.¹² However, the limitation of the MRI lies in its cost and lack of availability in some countries.¹³

Continue to: Nonspecific symptoms may lead to misdiagnosis

Nonspecific symptoms may lead to misdiagnosis. The symptoms associated with urethral diverticulum are diverse and linked to several differential diagnoses (TABLE).^3,4,12 The most common signs and symptoms are pelvic pain, urethral mass, dyspareunia, dysuria, urinary incontinence, and post-void dribbling—all of which are considered nonspecific.^3,10,11 These nonspecific symptoms (or even an absence of symptoms), along with a physician’s lack of familiarity with urethral diverticulum, can result in a misdiagnosis or even a delayed diagnosis (up to 5.2 years).^3,10

Managing symptoms vs preventing recurrence

Conservative management with antibiotics, anticholinergics, and/or observation is acceptable for patients with mild symptoms and those who are pregnant or who have a current infection or serious comorbidities that preclude surgery.^3,9 Complete excision of the urethral diverticulum with reconstruction is considered the most effective surgical management for symptom relief and recurrence prevention.^3,4,11,14

Our patient underwent a successful transvaginal suburethral diverticulectomy.

THE TAKEAWAY

The diagnosis of female urethral diverticulum is often delayed or misdiagnosed because symptoms are diverse and nonspecific. One should have a high degree of suspicion for urethral diverticulum in patients with dysuria, dyspareunia, pelvic pain, urinary incontinence, and irritative voiding symptoms who are not responding to conservative management. Ultrasound is an appropriate first-line imaging modality. However, a pelvic MRI is the most sensitive and specific in diagnosing urethral diverticulum.¹²

CORRESPONDENCE
Folashade Omole, MD, FAAFP, 720 Westview Drive, Atlanta, GA 30310; [email protected]

THE CASE

One month after moving into her mother’s apartment, a 27-year-old woman sought care at our clinic for fatigue, headache, blurred vision, nausea, and morning vomiting. She had weakness and difficulty sleeping, but denied any fever, rashes, neck stiffness, recent travel, trauma, or tobacco or illicit drug use. She did, however, have a 6-year history of migraines. Her physical exam was normal. She was sent home with a prescription for tramadol 50 mg bid for her headaches.

The patient subsequently went to the emergency department 3 times for the same complaints; none of the treatments she received there (mostly acetaminophen with codeine) relieved her symptoms. Three weeks later she returned to our clinic. She was distressed that the symptoms hadn’t gone away, and noted that her family was now experiencing similar symptoms.

Her temperature was 98.1°F (36.7°C), blood pressure was 131/88 mm Hg, pulse  was 85 beats/min, and respiratory rate was 18 breaths/min. Physical and neurologic exams were normal.

THE DIAGNOSIS

Although most of the patient’s lab test results were within normal ranges, her carboxyhemoglobin (COHb) level was 4.2%. COHb levels of >2% to 3% in nonsmokers or >9% to 10% in smokers suggest carbon monoxide (CO) poisoning.^1,2 Based on this finding and our patient’s symptoms, we diagnosed unintentional CO poisoning. We recommended that she and her mother vacate the apartment and have it inspected.

DISCUSSION

CO is the leading cause of poisoning mortality in the United States, and causes half of all fatal poisonings worldwide.^1,3,4 It is a colorless, odorless, and tasteless gas that is produced by the incomplete combustion of carbon-based products, such as coal or gas.^5,6 Exposure can occur from car exhaust fumes, faulty room heaters, and other sources (TABLE 1).⁶ The incidence of CO poisoning is higher during the winter months and after natural disasters. Individuals who have a lowered oxygen capacity, such as older adults, pregnant women (and their fetuses), infants, and patients with anemia, cardiovascular disease, or cerebrovascular disease, are more susceptible to CO poisoning.^5,6

COHb, a stable complex of CO that forms in red blood cells when CO is inhaled, impairs oxygen delivery and peripheral utilization, resulting in cellular hypoxia.¹ Signs and symptoms of CO poisoning are nonspecific and require a high degree of clinical suspicion for early diagnosis and treatment. Although cherry-red lips, peripheral cyanosis, and retinal hemorrhages are often described as “classic” symptoms of CO poisoning, these are rarely seen.⁶ The most common symptoms are actually headache (90%), dizziness (82%), and weakness (53%).⁷ Other symptoms include nausea, vomiting, confusion, visual disturbances, loss of consciousness, angina, seizure, and fatigue.^6,7 Symptoms of chronic CO poisoning may differ from those of acute poisoning and can include chronic fatigue, neuropathy, and memory deficit.⁸

The differential diagnosis for CO poisoning includes flu-like syndrome/influenza/other viral illnesses, migraine or tension headaches, depression, transient ischemic attack, encephalitis, coronary artery disease, gastroenteritis or food poisoning, seizures, and dysrhythmias.^1,4 Lab testing for COHb can help narrow the diagnosis. CO poisoning can be classified as mild, moderate, or severe based on COHb levels and the patient’s signs and symptoms (TABLE 2).⁶ However, COHb level is a poor predictor of clinical presentation and should not be used to dictate management.^2,7

Oxygen therapy is the recommended treatment

Early treatment with supplemental oxygen is recommended to reduce the length of time red blood cells are exposed to CO.¹ A COHb level >25% is the criterion for hyperbaric oxygen therapy.^1,3 Patients should receive treatment until their symptoms become less intense.

The 3 most common symptoms of CO poisoning are headache, dizziness, and weakness.

Delayed neuropsychiatric sequelae (DNS) can occur in up to one-third of patients with acute CO poisoning more than a month after apparent recovery.^1,6,9 DNS symptoms include cognitive changes, emotional lability, visual disturbances, disorientation, depression, dementia, psychotic behavior, parkinsonism, amnesia, and incontinence.^1,6,9 Approximately 50% to 75% of patients with DNS recover spontaneously within a year with symptomatic treatment.^1,6,9

Our patient

After recommending that our patient (and her mother) leave the apartment and have it inspected, we later learned that the fire department was unable to determine the source of the CO. A CO detector was installed and our patient was advised to keep the windows in the apartment open to allow for adequate oxygen flow. One month later she returned to our clinic and reported that her symptoms resolved; serum COHb was negative upon repeat lab tests.

THE TAKEAWAY

Patients who present with headaches, dizziness and/or fatigue should be evaluated for CO poisoning. The patient’s environmental history should be reviewed carefully, especially because CO poisoning is more common during the winter months. Oxygen therapy is the mainstay of treatment. Up to one-third of patients with acute poisoning may develop delayed neuropsychiatric sequelae, including cognitive changes, emotional lability, visual disturbances, disorientation, and depression, that may resolve within one year.

THE CASE

One month after moving into her mother’s apartment, a 27-year-old woman sought care at our clinic for fatigue, headache, blurred vision, nausea, and morning vomiting. She had weakness and difficulty sleeping, but denied any fever, rashes, neck stiffness, recent travel, trauma, or tobacco or illicit drug use. She did, however, have a 6-year history of migraines. Her physical exam was normal. She was sent home with a prescription for tramadol 50 mg bid for her headaches.

The patient subsequently went to the emergency department 3 times for the same complaints; none of the treatments she received there (mostly acetaminophen with codeine) relieved her symptoms. Three weeks later she returned to our clinic. She was distressed that the symptoms hadn’t gone away, and noted that her family was now experiencing similar symptoms.

Her temperature was 98.1°F (36.7°C), blood pressure was 131/88 mm Hg, pulse  was 85 beats/min, and respiratory rate was 18 breaths/min. Physical and neurologic exams were normal.

THE DIAGNOSIS

Although most of the patient’s lab test results were within normal ranges, her carboxyhemoglobin (COHb) level was 4.2%. COHb levels of >2% to 3% in nonsmokers or >9% to 10% in smokers suggest carbon monoxide (CO) poisoning.^1,2 Based on this finding and our patient’s symptoms, we diagnosed unintentional CO poisoning. We recommended that she and her mother vacate the apartment and have it inspected.

DISCUSSION

CO is the leading cause of poisoning mortality in the United States, and causes half of all fatal poisonings worldwide.^1,3,4 It is a colorless, odorless, and tasteless gas that is produced by the incomplete combustion of carbon-based products, such as coal or gas.^5,6 Exposure can occur from car exhaust fumes, faulty room heaters, and other sources (TABLE 1).⁶ The incidence of CO poisoning is higher during the winter months and after natural disasters. Individuals who have a lowered oxygen capacity, such as older adults, pregnant women (and their fetuses), infants, and patients with anemia, cardiovascular disease, or cerebrovascular disease, are more susceptible to CO poisoning.^5,6

COHb, a stable complex of CO that forms in red blood cells when CO is inhaled, impairs oxygen delivery and peripheral utilization, resulting in cellular hypoxia.¹ Signs and symptoms of CO poisoning are nonspecific and require a high degree of clinical suspicion for early diagnosis and treatment. Although cherry-red lips, peripheral cyanosis, and retinal hemorrhages are often described as “classic” symptoms of CO poisoning, these are rarely seen.⁶ The most common symptoms are actually headache (90%), dizziness (82%), and weakness (53%).⁷ Other symptoms include nausea, vomiting, confusion, visual disturbances, loss of consciousness, angina, seizure, and fatigue.^6,7 Symptoms of chronic CO poisoning may differ from those of acute poisoning and can include chronic fatigue, neuropathy, and memory deficit.⁸

The differential diagnosis for CO poisoning includes flu-like syndrome/influenza/other viral illnesses, migraine or tension headaches, depression, transient ischemic attack, encephalitis, coronary artery disease, gastroenteritis or food poisoning, seizures, and dysrhythmias.^1,4 Lab testing for COHb can help narrow the diagnosis. CO poisoning can be classified as mild, moderate, or severe based on COHb levels and the patient’s signs and symptoms (TABLE 2).⁶ However, COHb level is a poor predictor of clinical presentation and should not be used to dictate management.^2,7

Oxygen therapy is the recommended treatment

Early treatment with supplemental oxygen is recommended to reduce the length of time red blood cells are exposed to CO.¹ A COHb level >25% is the criterion for hyperbaric oxygen therapy.^1,3 Patients should receive treatment until their symptoms become less intense.

The 3 most common symptoms of CO poisoning are headache, dizziness, and weakness.

Delayed neuropsychiatric sequelae (DNS) can occur in up to one-third of patients with acute CO poisoning more than a month after apparent recovery.^1,6,9 DNS symptoms include cognitive changes, emotional lability, visual disturbances, disorientation, depression, dementia, psychotic behavior, parkinsonism, amnesia, and incontinence.^1,6,9 Approximately 50% to 75% of patients with DNS recover spontaneously within a year with symptomatic treatment.^1,6,9

Our patient

After recommending that our patient (and her mother) leave the apartment and have it inspected, we later learned that the fire department was unable to determine the source of the CO. A CO detector was installed and our patient was advised to keep the windows in the apartment open to allow for adequate oxygen flow. One month later she returned to our clinic and reported that her symptoms resolved; serum COHb was negative upon repeat lab tests.

THE TAKEAWAY

Patients who present with headaches, dizziness and/or fatigue should be evaluated for CO poisoning. The patient’s environmental history should be reviewed carefully, especially because CO poisoning is more common during the winter months. Oxygen therapy is the mainstay of treatment. Up to one-third of patients with acute poisoning may develop delayed neuropsychiatric sequelae, including cognitive changes, emotional lability, visual disturbances, disorientation, and depression, that may resolve within one year.

THE CASE

One month after moving into her mother’s apartment, a 27-year-old woman sought care at our clinic for fatigue, headache, blurred vision, nausea, and morning vomiting. She had weakness and difficulty sleeping, but denied any fever, rashes, neck stiffness, recent travel, trauma, or tobacco or illicit drug use. She did, however, have a 6-year history of migraines. Her physical exam was normal. She was sent home with a prescription for tramadol 50 mg bid for her headaches.

The patient subsequently went to the emergency department 3 times for the same complaints; none of the treatments she received there (mostly acetaminophen with codeine) relieved her symptoms. Three weeks later she returned to our clinic. She was distressed that the symptoms hadn’t gone away, and noted that her family was now experiencing similar symptoms.

Her temperature was 98.1°F (36.7°C), blood pressure was 131/88 mm Hg, pulse  was 85 beats/min, and respiratory rate was 18 breaths/min. Physical and neurologic exams were normal.

THE DIAGNOSIS

Although most of the patient’s lab test results were within normal ranges, her carboxyhemoglobin (COHb) level was 4.2%. COHb levels of >2% to 3% in nonsmokers or >9% to 10% in smokers suggest carbon monoxide (CO) poisoning.^1,2 Based on this finding and our patient’s symptoms, we diagnosed unintentional CO poisoning. We recommended that she and her mother vacate the apartment and have it inspected.

DISCUSSION

CO is the leading cause of poisoning mortality in the United States, and causes half of all fatal poisonings worldwide.^1,3,4 It is a colorless, odorless, and tasteless gas that is produced by the incomplete combustion of carbon-based products, such as coal or gas.^5,6 Exposure can occur from car exhaust fumes, faulty room heaters, and other sources (TABLE 1).⁶ The incidence of CO poisoning is higher during the winter months and after natural disasters. Individuals who have a lowered oxygen capacity, such as older adults, pregnant women (and their fetuses), infants, and patients with anemia, cardiovascular disease, or cerebrovascular disease, are more susceptible to CO poisoning.^5,6

COHb, a stable complex of CO that forms in red blood cells when CO is inhaled, impairs oxygen delivery and peripheral utilization, resulting in cellular hypoxia.¹ Signs and symptoms of CO poisoning are nonspecific and require a high degree of clinical suspicion for early diagnosis and treatment. Although cherry-red lips, peripheral cyanosis, and retinal hemorrhages are often described as “classic” symptoms of CO poisoning, these are rarely seen.⁶ The most common symptoms are actually headache (90%), dizziness (82%), and weakness (53%).⁷ Other symptoms include nausea, vomiting, confusion, visual disturbances, loss of consciousness, angina, seizure, and fatigue.^6,7 Symptoms of chronic CO poisoning may differ from those of acute poisoning and can include chronic fatigue, neuropathy, and memory deficit.⁸

The differential diagnosis for CO poisoning includes flu-like syndrome/influenza/other viral illnesses, migraine or tension headaches, depression, transient ischemic attack, encephalitis, coronary artery disease, gastroenteritis or food poisoning, seizures, and dysrhythmias.^1,4 Lab testing for COHb can help narrow the diagnosis. CO poisoning can be classified as mild, moderate, or severe based on COHb levels and the patient’s signs and symptoms (TABLE 2).⁶ However, COHb level is a poor predictor of clinical presentation and should not be used to dictate management.^2,7

Oxygen therapy is the recommended treatment

Early treatment with supplemental oxygen is recommended to reduce the length of time red blood cells are exposed to CO.¹ A COHb level >25% is the criterion for hyperbaric oxygen therapy.^1,3 Patients should receive treatment until their symptoms become less intense.

The 3 most common symptoms of CO poisoning are headache, dizziness, and weakness.

Delayed neuropsychiatric sequelae (DNS) can occur in up to one-third of patients with acute CO poisoning more than a month after apparent recovery.^1,6,9 DNS symptoms include cognitive changes, emotional lability, visual disturbances, disorientation, depression, dementia, psychotic behavior, parkinsonism, amnesia, and incontinence.^1,6,9 Approximately 50% to 75% of patients with DNS recover spontaneously within a year with symptomatic treatment.^1,6,9

Our patient

After recommending that our patient (and her mother) leave the apartment and have it inspected, we later learned that the fire department was unable to determine the source of the CO. A CO detector was installed and our patient was advised to keep the windows in the apartment open to allow for adequate oxygen flow. One month later she returned to our clinic and reported that her symptoms resolved; serum COHb was negative upon repeat lab tests.

THE TAKEAWAY

Patients who present with headaches, dizziness and/or fatigue should be evaluated for CO poisoning. The patient’s environmental history should be reviewed carefully, especially because CO poisoning is more common during the winter months. Oxygen therapy is the mainstay of treatment. Up to one-third of patients with acute poisoning may develop delayed neuropsychiatric sequelae, including cognitive changes, emotional lability, visual disturbances, disorientation, and depression, that may resolve within one year.

Sexuality is a central aspect of being human. It encompasses sex, gender identities and roles, sexual orientation, pleasure, eroticism, and intimacy, and is a major contributor to an individual’s quality of life and sense of wellbeing.^1,2 Positive sexual relationships and behaviors are integral to maintaining good health and general well-being later in life, as well.^2,3 Cynthia Graber, a reporter with Scientific American, reported that sex is a key reason retirees have a happy life.⁴

While there is a decline in sexual activity with age, a great number of men and women continue to engage in vaginal or anal intercourse, oral sex, and masturbation into the eighth and ninth decades of life.^2,5 In a survey conducted among married men and women, about 90% of respondents between the ages of 60 and 64 and almost 30% of those older than age 80 said they were still sexually active.2 Another study reported that 62% of men and 30% of women 80 to 102 years of age were still sexually active.⁶ However, sexuality is rarely discussed with the elderly, and most physicians are unsure about how to handle such conversations.⁷

The baby boomer population is aging in the United States and elsewhere. By 2030, 20% of the US population will be ≥65 years old, and 4% (3 million) will be lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer (LGBTQ) elderly adults.^3,8 Given the impact of sex on maintaining quality of life, it is important for health care providers to be comfortable discussing sexuality with the elderly.⁹

Barriers to discussing sexuality

Physician barriers

Primary care physicians typically are the first point of contact for elderly adults experiencing health problems, including sexual dysfunction. According to the American Psychological Association, sex is not discussed enough with the elderly. Most physicians do not address sexual health proactively, and rarely do they include a sexual history as part of general health screening in the elderly.^2,10,11 Inadequate training of physicians in sexual health is likely a contributing factor.5 Physicians also often feel discomfort when discussing such matters with patients of the opposite sex.¹² (For a suggested approach to these conversations, see “Discussing sexuality with elderly patients: Getting beyond ‘don’t ask, don’t tell,” below.) With the increasing number of LGBTQ elderly adults, physicians should not assume their patients have any particular sexual behavior or orientation. This will help elderly LGBTQ patients feel more comfortable discussing their sexual health needs.⁸

In a study of married men and women, almost 30% of those older than age 80 said they were still sexually active.The PLISSIT model, developed in 1976 by clinical psychologist Dr. Jack Annon, can facilitate a discussion of sexuality with elderly patients.^11,13 First, the healthcare provider seeks permission (P) to discuss sexuality with the patient. After permission is given, the provider can share limited information (LI) about sexual issues that affect the older adult. Next, the provider may offer specific suggestions (SS) to improve sexual health or resolve problems. Finally, referral for intensive therapy (IT) may be needed for someone whose sexual dysfunction goes beyond the scope of the health care provider’s expertise. In 2000, open-ended questions were added to the PLISSIT model to more effectively guide an assessment of sexuality in older adults^13,14:
• Can you tell me how you express your sexuality?
• What concerns or questions do you have about fulfilling your continuing sexual needs?
• In what ways has your sexual relationship with your partner changed as you have aged?

Many physicians have only a vague understanding of the sexual needs of the elderly, and some may even consider sexuality among elderly people a taboo.⁵ The reality is that elderly adults need to be touched, held, and feel loved, and this does not diminish with age.^15-17 Unfortunately, many healthcare professionals have a mindset of, “I don’t want to think about my parents having sex, let alone my grandparents.” It is critical that physicians address intimacy needs as part of a medical assessment of the elderly.

Loss of physical and emotional intimacy is profound and often ignored as a source of suffering for the elderly. Most elderly patients want to discuss sexual issues with their physician, according to the Global Study of Sexual Attitudes among men and women ages 40 to 80 years.¹⁸ Surprisingly, even geriatricians often fail to take a sexual history of their patients. In one study, only 57% of 120 geriatricians surveyed routinely took a sexual history, even though 97% of them believed that patients with sexual problems should be managed further.¹

Patient barriers

Even given a desire to discuss sexual concerns with their health care provider, elderly patients can be reluctant due to embarrassment or a fear of sexuality. Others may hesitate because their caregiver is younger than they or is of the opposite sex.^19,20 The attitude of a medical professional has a powerful impact on the sexual attitudes and behaviors of elderly patients, and on their level of comfort in discussing sexual issues.²¹ Elderly patients do not usually complain to their physicians about sexual dysfunctions; 92% of men and 96% of women who reported at least one sexual problem in a survey had not sought help at all.¹⁸

Addressing issues in sexual dysfunction

Though sexual desires and needs may not decline with age, sexual function might, for any number of reasons.^1,2,7 Many chronic diseases are known to interfere with sexual function (TABLE).² Polypharmacy can lead to physical challenges, cognitive changes, and impaired sexual arousal, especially in men.³ However, the reason cited most often for absence of sexual activity is lack of a partner or a willing partner.² Unfortunately as one ages, the chance of finding a partner diminishes. Hence the need to discuss alternative expressions of sexuality that may not require a partner.³ Many elderly individuals enjoy masturbation as a form of sexual expression.

Men and women have different sexual problems, but they are all treatable. For instance, with normal aging, levels of testosterone in men and estrogen in women decrease.^5,15 Despite the number of sexual health dysfunctions, only 14% of men and 1% of women use medications to treat them.^2,5 With men who have erectile dysfunction, discuss possible testosterone replacement or medication. For women with postmenopausal (atrophic) vaginitis, estrogen therapy or a lubricant (for those with contraindication to estrogen therapy) can improve sexual function. Anorgasmia and low libido are other concerns for postmenopausal women, and may warrant gynecologic referral.

Loss of physical and emotional intimacy is profound and often ignored as a source of suffering for the elderly.For elderly adults moving into assisted living or a nursing home, the transition can signal the end of a sexual life.^16,22 There is limited opportunity for men and women in residential settings to engage in sexual activity, in part due to a lack of privacy.²³ The nursing home is still a home, and facility staff should provide opportunities for privacy and intimacy. In a study conducted in a residential setting, more than 25% of those ages 65 to 85 reported an active sex life, while 90% of those surveyed had sexual thoughts and fantasies.²² Of course, many elderly adults enter residential settings without a partner. They should be allowed to engage in sexual activities if they can understand, consent to, and form a relationship. Sexual needs remain even in those with dementia. But cognitive impairment frequently manifests as inappropriate sexual behavior. A study of cognitively impaired older adults revealed that 1.8% had displayed sexually inappropriate verbal or physical behavior.²⁴ In these situations, a behavior medicine specialist can be of great help.

Health risks of sexual activity in the elderly

In 2011, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention reported that 5% of new human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) cases occurred in those ≥55 years, and almost 2% of new diagnoses were in the those ≥65 years.²⁵ Sexually active elderly individuals are at risk for acquiring HIV, in part because they do not consider themselves to be at risk for sexually transmitted diseases (STDs).²⁶ They also might not have received education about the importance of condom use.^11,26 In addition, prescribing erectile dysfunction medications for men and hormone replacement therapy for women might have played a part in increasing STDs among the elderly, particularly Chlamydia and HIV.²⁷ The long-term effects of STDs left untreated can easily be mistaken for other symptoms or diseases of aging, which further underscores the importance of discussing sexuality with elderly patients.

CORRESPONDENCE
Folashade Omole, MD, FAAFP, 1513 East Cleveland Avenue, Building 100, Suite 300-A, East Point, GA 30344; [email protected]

Sexuality is a central aspect of being human. It encompasses sex, gender identities and roles, sexual orientation, pleasure, eroticism, and intimacy, and is a major contributor to an individual’s quality of life and sense of wellbeing.^1,2 Positive sexual relationships and behaviors are integral to maintaining good health and general well-being later in life, as well.^2,3 Cynthia Graber, a reporter with Scientific American, reported that sex is a key reason retirees have a happy life.⁴

While there is a decline in sexual activity with age, a great number of men and women continue to engage in vaginal or anal intercourse, oral sex, and masturbation into the eighth and ninth decades of life.^2,5 In a survey conducted among married men and women, about 90% of respondents between the ages of 60 and 64 and almost 30% of those older than age 80 said they were still sexually active.2 Another study reported that 62% of men and 30% of women 80 to 102 years of age were still sexually active.⁶ However, sexuality is rarely discussed with the elderly, and most physicians are unsure about how to handle such conversations.⁷

The baby boomer population is aging in the United States and elsewhere. By 2030, 20% of the US population will be ≥65 years old, and 4% (3 million) will be lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer (LGBTQ) elderly adults.^3,8 Given the impact of sex on maintaining quality of life, it is important for health care providers to be comfortable discussing sexuality with the elderly.⁹

Barriers to discussing sexuality

Physician barriers

Primary care physicians typically are the first point of contact for elderly adults experiencing health problems, including sexual dysfunction. According to the American Psychological Association, sex is not discussed enough with the elderly. Most physicians do not address sexual health proactively, and rarely do they include a sexual history as part of general health screening in the elderly.^2,10,11 Inadequate training of physicians in sexual health is likely a contributing factor.5 Physicians also often feel discomfort when discussing such matters with patients of the opposite sex.¹² (For a suggested approach to these conversations, see “Discussing sexuality with elderly patients: Getting beyond ‘don’t ask, don’t tell,” below.) With the increasing number of LGBTQ elderly adults, physicians should not assume their patients have any particular sexual behavior or orientation. This will help elderly LGBTQ patients feel more comfortable discussing their sexual health needs.⁸

In a study of married men and women, almost 30% of those older than age 80 said they were still sexually active.The PLISSIT model, developed in 1976 by clinical psychologist Dr. Jack Annon, can facilitate a discussion of sexuality with elderly patients.^11,13 First, the healthcare provider seeks permission (P) to discuss sexuality with the patient. After permission is given, the provider can share limited information (LI) about sexual issues that affect the older adult. Next, the provider may offer specific suggestions (SS) to improve sexual health or resolve problems. Finally, referral for intensive therapy (IT) may be needed for someone whose sexual dysfunction goes beyond the scope of the health care provider’s expertise. In 2000, open-ended questions were added to the PLISSIT model to more effectively guide an assessment of sexuality in older adults^13,14:
• Can you tell me how you express your sexuality?
• What concerns or questions do you have about fulfilling your continuing sexual needs?
• In what ways has your sexual relationship with your partner changed as you have aged?

Many physicians have only a vague understanding of the sexual needs of the elderly, and some may even consider sexuality among elderly people a taboo.⁵ The reality is that elderly adults need to be touched, held, and feel loved, and this does not diminish with age.^15-17 Unfortunately, many healthcare professionals have a mindset of, “I don’t want to think about my parents having sex, let alone my grandparents.” It is critical that physicians address intimacy needs as part of a medical assessment of the elderly.

Loss of physical and emotional intimacy is profound and often ignored as a source of suffering for the elderly. Most elderly patients want to discuss sexual issues with their physician, according to the Global Study of Sexual Attitudes among men and women ages 40 to 80 years.¹⁸ Surprisingly, even geriatricians often fail to take a sexual history of their patients. In one study, only 57% of 120 geriatricians surveyed routinely took a sexual history, even though 97% of them believed that patients with sexual problems should be managed further.¹

Patient barriers

Even given a desire to discuss sexual concerns with their health care provider, elderly patients can be reluctant due to embarrassment or a fear of sexuality. Others may hesitate because their caregiver is younger than they or is of the opposite sex.^19,20 The attitude of a medical professional has a powerful impact on the sexual attitudes and behaviors of elderly patients, and on their level of comfort in discussing sexual issues.²¹ Elderly patients do not usually complain to their physicians about sexual dysfunctions; 92% of men and 96% of women who reported at least one sexual problem in a survey had not sought help at all.¹⁸

Addressing issues in sexual dysfunction

Though sexual desires and needs may not decline with age, sexual function might, for any number of reasons.^1,2,7 Many chronic diseases are known to interfere with sexual function (TABLE).² Polypharmacy can lead to physical challenges, cognitive changes, and impaired sexual arousal, especially in men.³ However, the reason cited most often for absence of sexual activity is lack of a partner or a willing partner.² Unfortunately as one ages, the chance of finding a partner diminishes. Hence the need to discuss alternative expressions of sexuality that may not require a partner.³ Many elderly individuals enjoy masturbation as a form of sexual expression.

Men and women have different sexual problems, but they are all treatable. For instance, with normal aging, levels of testosterone in men and estrogen in women decrease.^5,15 Despite the number of sexual health dysfunctions, only 14% of men and 1% of women use medications to treat them.^2,5 With men who have erectile dysfunction, discuss possible testosterone replacement or medication. For women with postmenopausal (atrophic) vaginitis, estrogen therapy or a lubricant (for those with contraindication to estrogen therapy) can improve sexual function. Anorgasmia and low libido are other concerns for postmenopausal women, and may warrant gynecologic referral.

Loss of physical and emotional intimacy is profound and often ignored as a source of suffering for the elderly.For elderly adults moving into assisted living or a nursing home, the transition can signal the end of a sexual life.^16,22 There is limited opportunity for men and women in residential settings to engage in sexual activity, in part due to a lack of privacy.²³ The nursing home is still a home, and facility staff should provide opportunities for privacy and intimacy. In a study conducted in a residential setting, more than 25% of those ages 65 to 85 reported an active sex life, while 90% of those surveyed had sexual thoughts and fantasies.²² Of course, many elderly adults enter residential settings without a partner. They should be allowed to engage in sexual activities if they can understand, consent to, and form a relationship. Sexual needs remain even in those with dementia. But cognitive impairment frequently manifests as inappropriate sexual behavior. A study of cognitively impaired older adults revealed that 1.8% had displayed sexually inappropriate verbal or physical behavior.²⁴ In these situations, a behavior medicine specialist can be of great help.

Health risks of sexual activity in the elderly

In 2011, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention reported that 5% of new human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) cases occurred in those ≥55 years, and almost 2% of new diagnoses were in the those ≥65 years.²⁵ Sexually active elderly individuals are at risk for acquiring HIV, in part because they do not consider themselves to be at risk for sexually transmitted diseases (STDs).²⁶ They also might not have received education about the importance of condom use.^11,26 In addition, prescribing erectile dysfunction medications for men and hormone replacement therapy for women might have played a part in increasing STDs among the elderly, particularly Chlamydia and HIV.²⁷ The long-term effects of STDs left untreated can easily be mistaken for other symptoms or diseases of aging, which further underscores the importance of discussing sexuality with elderly patients.

CORRESPONDENCE
Folashade Omole, MD, FAAFP, 1513 East Cleveland Avenue, Building 100, Suite 300-A, East Point, GA 30344; [email protected]

Sexuality is a central aspect of being human. It encompasses sex, gender identities and roles, sexual orientation, pleasure, eroticism, and intimacy, and is a major contributor to an individual’s quality of life and sense of wellbeing.^1,2 Positive sexual relationships and behaviors are integral to maintaining good health and general well-being later in life, as well.^2,3 Cynthia Graber, a reporter with Scientific American, reported that sex is a key reason retirees have a happy life.⁴

While there is a decline in sexual activity with age, a great number of men and women continue to engage in vaginal or anal intercourse, oral sex, and masturbation into the eighth and ninth decades of life.^2,5 In a survey conducted among married men and women, about 90% of respondents between the ages of 60 and 64 and almost 30% of those older than age 80 said they were still sexually active.2 Another study reported that 62% of men and 30% of women 80 to 102 years of age were still sexually active.⁶ However, sexuality is rarely discussed with the elderly, and most physicians are unsure about how to handle such conversations.⁷

The baby boomer population is aging in the United States and elsewhere. By 2030, 20% of the US population will be ≥65 years old, and 4% (3 million) will be lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer (LGBTQ) elderly adults.^3,8 Given the impact of sex on maintaining quality of life, it is important for health care providers to be comfortable discussing sexuality with the elderly.⁹

Barriers to discussing sexuality

Physician barriers

Primary care physicians typically are the first point of contact for elderly adults experiencing health problems, including sexual dysfunction. According to the American Psychological Association, sex is not discussed enough with the elderly. Most physicians do not address sexual health proactively, and rarely do they include a sexual history as part of general health screening in the elderly.^2,10,11 Inadequate training of physicians in sexual health is likely a contributing factor.5 Physicians also often feel discomfort when discussing such matters with patients of the opposite sex.¹² (For a suggested approach to these conversations, see “Discussing sexuality with elderly patients: Getting beyond ‘don’t ask, don’t tell,” below.) With the increasing number of LGBTQ elderly adults, physicians should not assume their patients have any particular sexual behavior or orientation. This will help elderly LGBTQ patients feel more comfortable discussing their sexual health needs.⁸

In a study of married men and women, almost 30% of those older than age 80 said they were still sexually active.The PLISSIT model, developed in 1976 by clinical psychologist Dr. Jack Annon, can facilitate a discussion of sexuality with elderly patients.^11,13 First, the healthcare provider seeks permission (P) to discuss sexuality with the patient. After permission is given, the provider can share limited information (LI) about sexual issues that affect the older adult. Next, the provider may offer specific suggestions (SS) to improve sexual health or resolve problems. Finally, referral for intensive therapy (IT) may be needed for someone whose sexual dysfunction goes beyond the scope of the health care provider’s expertise. In 2000, open-ended questions were added to the PLISSIT model to more effectively guide an assessment of sexuality in older adults^13,14:
• Can you tell me how you express your sexuality?
• What concerns or questions do you have about fulfilling your continuing sexual needs?
• In what ways has your sexual relationship with your partner changed as you have aged?

Many physicians have only a vague understanding of the sexual needs of the elderly, and some may even consider sexuality among elderly people a taboo.⁵ The reality is that elderly adults need to be touched, held, and feel loved, and this does not diminish with age.^15-17 Unfortunately, many healthcare professionals have a mindset of, “I don’t want to think about my parents having sex, let alone my grandparents.” It is critical that physicians address intimacy needs as part of a medical assessment of the elderly.

Loss of physical and emotional intimacy is profound and often ignored as a source of suffering for the elderly. Most elderly patients want to discuss sexual issues with their physician, according to the Global Study of Sexual Attitudes among men and women ages 40 to 80 years.¹⁸ Surprisingly, even geriatricians often fail to take a sexual history of their patients. In one study, only 57% of 120 geriatricians surveyed routinely took a sexual history, even though 97% of them believed that patients with sexual problems should be managed further.¹

Patient barriers

Even given a desire to discuss sexual concerns with their health care provider, elderly patients can be reluctant due to embarrassment or a fear of sexuality. Others may hesitate because their caregiver is younger than they or is of the opposite sex.^19,20 The attitude of a medical professional has a powerful impact on the sexual attitudes and behaviors of elderly patients, and on their level of comfort in discussing sexual issues.²¹ Elderly patients do not usually complain to their physicians about sexual dysfunctions; 92% of men and 96% of women who reported at least one sexual problem in a survey had not sought help at all.¹⁸

Addressing issues in sexual dysfunction

Though sexual desires and needs may not decline with age, sexual function might, for any number of reasons.^1,2,7 Many chronic diseases are known to interfere with sexual function (TABLE).² Polypharmacy can lead to physical challenges, cognitive changes, and impaired sexual arousal, especially in men.³ However, the reason cited most often for absence of sexual activity is lack of a partner or a willing partner.² Unfortunately as one ages, the chance of finding a partner diminishes. Hence the need to discuss alternative expressions of sexuality that may not require a partner.³ Many elderly individuals enjoy masturbation as a form of sexual expression.

Men and women have different sexual problems, but they are all treatable. For instance, with normal aging, levels of testosterone in men and estrogen in women decrease.^5,15 Despite the number of sexual health dysfunctions, only 14% of men and 1% of women use medications to treat them.^2,5 With men who have erectile dysfunction, discuss possible testosterone replacement or medication. For women with postmenopausal (atrophic) vaginitis, estrogen therapy or a lubricant (for those with contraindication to estrogen therapy) can improve sexual function. Anorgasmia and low libido are other concerns for postmenopausal women, and may warrant gynecologic referral.

Loss of physical and emotional intimacy is profound and often ignored as a source of suffering for the elderly.For elderly adults moving into assisted living or a nursing home, the transition can signal the end of a sexual life.^16,22 There is limited opportunity for men and women in residential settings to engage in sexual activity, in part due to a lack of privacy.²³ The nursing home is still a home, and facility staff should provide opportunities for privacy and intimacy. In a study conducted in a residential setting, more than 25% of those ages 65 to 85 reported an active sex life, while 90% of those surveyed had sexual thoughts and fantasies.²² Of course, many elderly adults enter residential settings without a partner. They should be allowed to engage in sexual activities if they can understand, consent to, and form a relationship. Sexual needs remain even in those with dementia. But cognitive impairment frequently manifests as inappropriate sexual behavior. A study of cognitively impaired older adults revealed that 1.8% had displayed sexually inappropriate verbal or physical behavior.²⁴ In these situations, a behavior medicine specialist can be of great help.

Health risks of sexual activity in the elderly

In 2011, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention reported that 5% of new human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) cases occurred in those ≥55 years, and almost 2% of new diagnoses were in the those ≥65 years.²⁵ Sexually active elderly individuals are at risk for acquiring HIV, in part because they do not consider themselves to be at risk for sexually transmitted diseases (STDs).²⁶ They also might not have received education about the importance of condom use.^11,26 In addition, prescribing erectile dysfunction medications for men and hormone replacement therapy for women might have played a part in increasing STDs among the elderly, particularly Chlamydia and HIV.²⁷ The long-term effects of STDs left untreated can easily be mistaken for other symptoms or diseases of aging, which further underscores the importance of discussing sexuality with elderly patients.

CORRESPONDENCE
Folashade Omole, MD, FAAFP, 1513 East Cleveland Avenue, Building 100, Suite 300-A, East Point, GA 30344; [email protected]