ADHD

Clonidine is a centrally acting alpha-2 agonist originally developed for treating hypertension. It is believed to work by stimulating alpha-2 receptors in various areas of the brain. It is nonselective, binding alpha-2A, -2B, and -2C receptors, and mediates inattentiveness, hyperactivity, impulsivity, sedation, and hypotension.¹ Clonidine is available as immediate-release (IR), extended-release, and patch formulations, with typical doses ranging from 0.1 to 0.4 mg/d. The most common adverse effects are anticholinergic, such as sedation, dry mouth, and constipation. Since clonidine is effective at lowering blood pressure, the main safety concern is the possibility of rebound hypertension if abruptly stopped, which necessitates a short taper period.¹

In child and adolescent psychiatry, the only FDA-approved use of clonidine is for treating attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Yet this medication has been increasingly used off-label for several common psychiatric ailments in pediatric patients. In this article, we discuss potential uses of clonidine in child and adolescent psychiatry; except for ADHD, all uses we describe are off-label.

ADHD. Clonidine is effective both as a monotherapy and as an adjunctive therapy to stimulants for pediatric ADHD. When used alone, clonidine is better suited for patients who have hyperactivity as their primary concern, whereas stimulants may be better suited for patients with inattentive subtypes. It also can help reduce sleep disturbances associated with the use of stimulants, especially insomnia.¹

Tics/Tourette syndrome. Clonidine is a first-line treatment for tics in Tourette syndrome, demonstrating high efficacy with limited or no adverse effects. Furthermore, ADHD is the most common comorbid condition in patients with dystonic tics, which makes clonidine useful for simultaneously treating both conditions.²

Insomnia. Currently, there are no FDA-approved medications for treating sleep disorders in children and adolescents. However, clonidine is among the most used medications for childhood sleep difficulties, second only to antihistamines. The IR formulation is often preferred for this indication due to increased sedation.³

Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Research has shown clonidine can help reduce hyperarousal symptoms, address sleep difficulties, and reduce PTSD trauma nightmares, anxiety, and irritability.⁴

Substance detoxification. Clonidine successfully suppresses opiate withdrawal signs and symptoms by reducing sympathetic overactivity. It can help with alcohol withdrawal and smoking cessation.²

Antipsychotic-induced akathisia. Controlled trials have shown that clonidine significantly reduces akathisia associated with the use of antipsychotics.²

Sialorrhea. Due to its anticholinergic effects, clonidine can effectively reduce antipsychotic-induced hypersalivation.²

Behavioral disturbances. Due to its sedative and anti-impulsive properties, clonidine can be used to address broadly defined behavioral issues, including anxiety-related behaviors, aggression, and agitation, although there is a lack of proven efficacy.^1,2,4

Clonidine is a centrally acting alpha-2 agonist originally developed for treating hypertension. It is believed to work by stimulating alpha-2 receptors in various areas of the brain. It is nonselective, binding alpha-2A, -2B, and -2C receptors, and mediates inattentiveness, hyperactivity, impulsivity, sedation, and hypotension.¹ Clonidine is available as immediate-release (IR), extended-release, and patch formulations, with typical doses ranging from 0.1 to 0.4 mg/d. The most common adverse effects are anticholinergic, such as sedation, dry mouth, and constipation. Since clonidine is effective at lowering blood pressure, the main safety concern is the possibility of rebound hypertension if abruptly stopped, which necessitates a short taper period.¹

In child and adolescent psychiatry, the only FDA-approved use of clonidine is for treating attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Yet this medication has been increasingly used off-label for several common psychiatric ailments in pediatric patients. In this article, we discuss potential uses of clonidine in child and adolescent psychiatry; except for ADHD, all uses we describe are off-label.

ADHD. Clonidine is effective both as a monotherapy and as an adjunctive therapy to stimulants for pediatric ADHD. When used alone, clonidine is better suited for patients who have hyperactivity as their primary concern, whereas stimulants may be better suited for patients with inattentive subtypes. It also can help reduce sleep disturbances associated with the use of stimulants, especially insomnia.¹

Tics/Tourette syndrome. Clonidine is a first-line treatment for tics in Tourette syndrome, demonstrating high efficacy with limited or no adverse effects. Furthermore, ADHD is the most common comorbid condition in patients with dystonic tics, which makes clonidine useful for simultaneously treating both conditions.²

Insomnia. Currently, there are no FDA-approved medications for treating sleep disorders in children and adolescents. However, clonidine is among the most used medications for childhood sleep difficulties, second only to antihistamines. The IR formulation is often preferred for this indication due to increased sedation.³

Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Research has shown clonidine can help reduce hyperarousal symptoms, address sleep difficulties, and reduce PTSD trauma nightmares, anxiety, and irritability.⁴

Substance detoxification. Clonidine successfully suppresses opiate withdrawal signs and symptoms by reducing sympathetic overactivity. It can help with alcohol withdrawal and smoking cessation.²

Antipsychotic-induced akathisia. Controlled trials have shown that clonidine significantly reduces akathisia associated with the use of antipsychotics.²

Sialorrhea. Due to its anticholinergic effects, clonidine can effectively reduce antipsychotic-induced hypersalivation.²

Behavioral disturbances. Due to its sedative and anti-impulsive properties, clonidine can be used to address broadly defined behavioral issues, including anxiety-related behaviors, aggression, and agitation, although there is a lack of proven efficacy.^1,2,4

Clonidine is a centrally acting alpha-2 agonist originally developed for treating hypertension. It is believed to work by stimulating alpha-2 receptors in various areas of the brain. It is nonselective, binding alpha-2A, -2B, and -2C receptors, and mediates inattentiveness, hyperactivity, impulsivity, sedation, and hypotension.¹ Clonidine is available as immediate-release (IR), extended-release, and patch formulations, with typical doses ranging from 0.1 to 0.4 mg/d. The most common adverse effects are anticholinergic, such as sedation, dry mouth, and constipation. Since clonidine is effective at lowering blood pressure, the main safety concern is the possibility of rebound hypertension if abruptly stopped, which necessitates a short taper period.¹

In child and adolescent psychiatry, the only FDA-approved use of clonidine is for treating attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Yet this medication has been increasingly used off-label for several common psychiatric ailments in pediatric patients. In this article, we discuss potential uses of clonidine in child and adolescent psychiatry; except for ADHD, all uses we describe are off-label.

ADHD. Clonidine is effective both as a monotherapy and as an adjunctive therapy to stimulants for pediatric ADHD. When used alone, clonidine is better suited for patients who have hyperactivity as their primary concern, whereas stimulants may be better suited for patients with inattentive subtypes. It also can help reduce sleep disturbances associated with the use of stimulants, especially insomnia.¹

Tics/Tourette syndrome. Clonidine is a first-line treatment for tics in Tourette syndrome, demonstrating high efficacy with limited or no adverse effects. Furthermore, ADHD is the most common comorbid condition in patients with dystonic tics, which makes clonidine useful for simultaneously treating both conditions.²

Insomnia. Currently, there are no FDA-approved medications for treating sleep disorders in children and adolescents. However, clonidine is among the most used medications for childhood sleep difficulties, second only to antihistamines. The IR formulation is often preferred for this indication due to increased sedation.³

Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Research has shown clonidine can help reduce hyperarousal symptoms, address sleep difficulties, and reduce PTSD trauma nightmares, anxiety, and irritability.⁴

Substance detoxification. Clonidine successfully suppresses opiate withdrawal signs and symptoms by reducing sympathetic overactivity. It can help with alcohol withdrawal and smoking cessation.²

Antipsychotic-induced akathisia. Controlled trials have shown that clonidine significantly reduces akathisia associated with the use of antipsychotics.²

Sialorrhea. Due to its anticholinergic effects, clonidine can effectively reduce antipsychotic-induced hypersalivation.²

Behavioral disturbances. Due to its sedative and anti-impulsive properties, clonidine can be used to address broadly defined behavioral issues, including anxiety-related behaviors, aggression, and agitation, although there is a lack of proven efficacy.^1,2,4

A once-daily oral stimulant medication for treatment of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in individuals aged 6 years or older is safe and effective after 1 year of treatment, new research shows.

Results from a phase 3, multicenter dose optimization, open-label safety study of Azstarys (KemPharm) found that most treatment-emergent adverse events (TEAEs) were mild to moderate.

“This data show that Azstarys remains safe and effective for the treatment of ADHD when given for up to a year,” lead investigator Ann Childress, MD, president of the Center for Psychiatry and Behavioral Medicine, Las Vegas, said in an interview.

The study was published online  in the Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology.

Safety at 1 year

The drug is a combination of extended-release serdexmethylphenidate (SDX), KemPharm’s prodrug of dexmethylphenidate (d-MPH), co-formulated with immediate-release d-MPH.

SDX is converted to d-MPH after it is absorbed in the gastrointestinal tract. The d-MPH is released gradually throughout the day, providing quick symptom control with the d-MPH and extended control with SDX.

As reported by this news organization, Azstarys was approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration in 2021 on the basis of results from a laboratory classroom phase 3 trial, which showed significant improvement in ADHD symptoms, compared with placebo.

For this study, the second phase 3 trial of Azstarys, investigators analyzed data from 282 children aged 6-12 years in the United States, including 70 who participated in an earlier 1-month efficacy trial as well.

After screening and a 3-week dose-optimization phase for new participants, patients received once-daily treatment with doses of 26.1 mg/5.2 mg, 39.2 mg/7.8 mg, or 52.3 mg/10.4 mg of SDX/d-MPH.

After 1 year of treatment, 60.1% of participants reported at least one TEAE, the majority of which were moderate. Twelve patients reported severe TEAEs. Six children (2.5%) discontinued the study due to a TEAE during the treatment phase.

Investigators also measured growth and changes in sleep with the Children’s Sleep Habits Questionnaire during the 12-month study. Sleep improved on most measures and the impact on growth was mild.

There were no life-threatening TEAEs and no deaths reported during the study.

The most common TEAEs during the treatment phase were decreased appetite, upper respiratory tract infection, nasopharyngitis, decreased weight, irritability, and increased weight.

Efficacy at 1 year

ADHD symptoms improved considerably after 1 month of treatment, with responses continuing at 1 year.

At baseline, participants’ mean ADHD Rating Scale-5 (ADHD-RS-5) score was 41.5. After 1 month of treatment, scores averaged 16.1, a decline of –25.3 (P < .001).

The mean score stabilized in the 12-15 range for the remainder of the study. After 1 year of treatment, ADHD symptoms had decreased approximately 70% from baseline.

Investigators found similar results in clinical severity. After 1 month of treatment, the average Clinical Global Impressions–Severity (CGI-S) scale score was 2.5, a decline of –2.2 (P < .0001).

CGI-S scale scores remained in the 2.2-2.4 range for the remainder of the study.

These results, combined with the results of the original classroom trial, suggest Azstarys may offer advantages over other ADHD drugs, Dr. Childress said.

“In the laboratory classroom trial, subjects taking Azstarys completed significantly more math problems than subjects taking placebo beginning at 30 minutes and up to 13 hours after dosing,” Dr. Childress said. “No other methylphenidate extended-release product currently marketed in the United States has a 13-hour duration of effect.”

‘Reassuring data’

Aditya Pawar, MD, a child and adolescent psychiatrist with the Kennedy Krieger Institute and an assistant professor of psychiatry and behavioral sciences at Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, said that the study suggests the drug may be a valuable addition to ADHD treatment options for pediatric patients.

“The study provides reassuring data on the safety of stimulants in patients without significant history of cardiac events or blood pressure changes, which are usual concerns among patients and clinicians despite the evidence supporting safety, said Dr. Pawar, who was not part of the study.

“Additionally, the 1-year data on efficacy and safety of a new stimulant medication is valuable for clinicians looking for sustained relief for their patients, despite the limitations of an open-label trial,” she added.

Overall, the safety data reported here are fairly consistent with the safety profile of other methylphenidates used for treating ADHD, Dr. Pawar said.

However, she noted, the study does have some limitations, including its open-label design and lack of blinding. The research also excluded children with autism, disruptive mood dysregulation disorders, and other common comorbidities of ADHD, which may limit the generalizability of the results.

“These comorbidities often require stimulants as a part of treatment and yet have a higher risk of side effects,” Dr. Pawar said. “Future studies with a broader population may be needed to better understand treatment effectiveness and potential risks.”

The study was funded by KemPharm. Dr. Childress serves as consultant for Aardvark, Arbor, Attentive, Cingulate, Ironshore, Neos Therapeutics, Neurocentria, Otsuka, Purdue, Rhodes, Sunovion, Tris Pharma, KemPharm, Supernus, Jazz, Corium, Tulex, and Lumos. Full disclosures are reported in the original article.

A version of this article first appeared on Medscape.com.

A once-daily oral stimulant medication for treatment of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in individuals aged 6 years or older is safe and effective after 1 year of treatment, new research shows.

Results from a phase 3, multicenter dose optimization, open-label safety study of Azstarys (KemPharm) found that most treatment-emergent adverse events (TEAEs) were mild to moderate.

“This data show that Azstarys remains safe and effective for the treatment of ADHD when given for up to a year,” lead investigator Ann Childress, MD, president of the Center for Psychiatry and Behavioral Medicine, Las Vegas, said in an interview.

The study was published online  in the Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology.

Safety at 1 year

The drug is a combination of extended-release serdexmethylphenidate (SDX), KemPharm’s prodrug of dexmethylphenidate (d-MPH), co-formulated with immediate-release d-MPH.

SDX is converted to d-MPH after it is absorbed in the gastrointestinal tract. The d-MPH is released gradually throughout the day, providing quick symptom control with the d-MPH and extended control with SDX.

As reported by this news organization, Azstarys was approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration in 2021 on the basis of results from a laboratory classroom phase 3 trial, which showed significant improvement in ADHD symptoms, compared with placebo.

For this study, the second phase 3 trial of Azstarys, investigators analyzed data from 282 children aged 6-12 years in the United States, including 70 who participated in an earlier 1-month efficacy trial as well.

After screening and a 3-week dose-optimization phase for new participants, patients received once-daily treatment with doses of 26.1 mg/5.2 mg, 39.2 mg/7.8 mg, or 52.3 mg/10.4 mg of SDX/d-MPH.

After 1 year of treatment, 60.1% of participants reported at least one TEAE, the majority of which were moderate. Twelve patients reported severe TEAEs. Six children (2.5%) discontinued the study due to a TEAE during the treatment phase.

Investigators also measured growth and changes in sleep with the Children’s Sleep Habits Questionnaire during the 12-month study. Sleep improved on most measures and the impact on growth was mild.

There were no life-threatening TEAEs and no deaths reported during the study.

The most common TEAEs during the treatment phase were decreased appetite, upper respiratory tract infection, nasopharyngitis, decreased weight, irritability, and increased weight.

Efficacy at 1 year

ADHD symptoms improved considerably after 1 month of treatment, with responses continuing at 1 year.

At baseline, participants’ mean ADHD Rating Scale-5 (ADHD-RS-5) score was 41.5. After 1 month of treatment, scores averaged 16.1, a decline of –25.3 (P < .001).

The mean score stabilized in the 12-15 range for the remainder of the study. After 1 year of treatment, ADHD symptoms had decreased approximately 70% from baseline.

Investigators found similar results in clinical severity. After 1 month of treatment, the average Clinical Global Impressions–Severity (CGI-S) scale score was 2.5, a decline of –2.2 (P < .0001).

CGI-S scale scores remained in the 2.2-2.4 range for the remainder of the study.

These results, combined with the results of the original classroom trial, suggest Azstarys may offer advantages over other ADHD drugs, Dr. Childress said.

“In the laboratory classroom trial, subjects taking Azstarys completed significantly more math problems than subjects taking placebo beginning at 30 minutes and up to 13 hours after dosing,” Dr. Childress said. “No other methylphenidate extended-release product currently marketed in the United States has a 13-hour duration of effect.”

‘Reassuring data’

Aditya Pawar, MD, a child and adolescent psychiatrist with the Kennedy Krieger Institute and an assistant professor of psychiatry and behavioral sciences at Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, said that the study suggests the drug may be a valuable addition to ADHD treatment options for pediatric patients.

“The study provides reassuring data on the safety of stimulants in patients without significant history of cardiac events or blood pressure changes, which are usual concerns among patients and clinicians despite the evidence supporting safety, said Dr. Pawar, who was not part of the study.

“Additionally, the 1-year data on efficacy and safety of a new stimulant medication is valuable for clinicians looking for sustained relief for their patients, despite the limitations of an open-label trial,” she added.

Overall, the safety data reported here are fairly consistent with the safety profile of other methylphenidates used for treating ADHD, Dr. Pawar said.

However, she noted, the study does have some limitations, including its open-label design and lack of blinding. The research also excluded children with autism, disruptive mood dysregulation disorders, and other common comorbidities of ADHD, which may limit the generalizability of the results.

“These comorbidities often require stimulants as a part of treatment and yet have a higher risk of side effects,” Dr. Pawar said. “Future studies with a broader population may be needed to better understand treatment effectiveness and potential risks.”

The study was funded by KemPharm. Dr. Childress serves as consultant for Aardvark, Arbor, Attentive, Cingulate, Ironshore, Neos Therapeutics, Neurocentria, Otsuka, Purdue, Rhodes, Sunovion, Tris Pharma, KemPharm, Supernus, Jazz, Corium, Tulex, and Lumos. Full disclosures are reported in the original article.

A version of this article first appeared on Medscape.com.

A once-daily oral stimulant medication for treatment of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in individuals aged 6 years or older is safe and effective after 1 year of treatment, new research shows.

Results from a phase 3, multicenter dose optimization, open-label safety study of Azstarys (KemPharm) found that most treatment-emergent adverse events (TEAEs) were mild to moderate.

“This data show that Azstarys remains safe and effective for the treatment of ADHD when given for up to a year,” lead investigator Ann Childress, MD, president of the Center for Psychiatry and Behavioral Medicine, Las Vegas, said in an interview.

The study was published online  in the Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology.

Safety at 1 year

The drug is a combination of extended-release serdexmethylphenidate (SDX), KemPharm’s prodrug of dexmethylphenidate (d-MPH), co-formulated with immediate-release d-MPH.

SDX is converted to d-MPH after it is absorbed in the gastrointestinal tract. The d-MPH is released gradually throughout the day, providing quick symptom control with the d-MPH and extended control with SDX.

As reported by this news organization, Azstarys was approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration in 2021 on the basis of results from a laboratory classroom phase 3 trial, which showed significant improvement in ADHD symptoms, compared with placebo.

For this study, the second phase 3 trial of Azstarys, investigators analyzed data from 282 children aged 6-12 years in the United States, including 70 who participated in an earlier 1-month efficacy trial as well.

After screening and a 3-week dose-optimization phase for new participants, patients received once-daily treatment with doses of 26.1 mg/5.2 mg, 39.2 mg/7.8 mg, or 52.3 mg/10.4 mg of SDX/d-MPH.

After 1 year of treatment, 60.1% of participants reported at least one TEAE, the majority of which were moderate. Twelve patients reported severe TEAEs. Six children (2.5%) discontinued the study due to a TEAE during the treatment phase.

Investigators also measured growth and changes in sleep with the Children’s Sleep Habits Questionnaire during the 12-month study. Sleep improved on most measures and the impact on growth was mild.

There were no life-threatening TEAEs and no deaths reported during the study.

The most common TEAEs during the treatment phase were decreased appetite, upper respiratory tract infection, nasopharyngitis, decreased weight, irritability, and increased weight.

Efficacy at 1 year

ADHD symptoms improved considerably after 1 month of treatment, with responses continuing at 1 year.

At baseline, participants’ mean ADHD Rating Scale-5 (ADHD-RS-5) score was 41.5. After 1 month of treatment, scores averaged 16.1, a decline of –25.3 (P < .001).

The mean score stabilized in the 12-15 range for the remainder of the study. After 1 year of treatment, ADHD symptoms had decreased approximately 70% from baseline.

Investigators found similar results in clinical severity. After 1 month of treatment, the average Clinical Global Impressions–Severity (CGI-S) scale score was 2.5, a decline of –2.2 (P < .0001).

CGI-S scale scores remained in the 2.2-2.4 range for the remainder of the study.

These results, combined with the results of the original classroom trial, suggest Azstarys may offer advantages over other ADHD drugs, Dr. Childress said.

“In the laboratory classroom trial, subjects taking Azstarys completed significantly more math problems than subjects taking placebo beginning at 30 minutes and up to 13 hours after dosing,” Dr. Childress said. “No other methylphenidate extended-release product currently marketed in the United States has a 13-hour duration of effect.”

‘Reassuring data’

Aditya Pawar, MD, a child and adolescent psychiatrist with the Kennedy Krieger Institute and an assistant professor of psychiatry and behavioral sciences at Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, said that the study suggests the drug may be a valuable addition to ADHD treatment options for pediatric patients.

“The study provides reassuring data on the safety of stimulants in patients without significant history of cardiac events or blood pressure changes, which are usual concerns among patients and clinicians despite the evidence supporting safety, said Dr. Pawar, who was not part of the study.

“Additionally, the 1-year data on efficacy and safety of a new stimulant medication is valuable for clinicians looking for sustained relief for their patients, despite the limitations of an open-label trial,” she added.

Overall, the safety data reported here are fairly consistent with the safety profile of other methylphenidates used for treating ADHD, Dr. Pawar said.

However, she noted, the study does have some limitations, including its open-label design and lack of blinding. The research also excluded children with autism, disruptive mood dysregulation disorders, and other common comorbidities of ADHD, which may limit the generalizability of the results.

“These comorbidities often require stimulants as a part of treatment and yet have a higher risk of side effects,” Dr. Pawar said. “Future studies with a broader population may be needed to better understand treatment effectiveness and potential risks.”

The study was funded by KemPharm. Dr. Childress serves as consultant for Aardvark, Arbor, Attentive, Cingulate, Ironshore, Neos Therapeutics, Neurocentria, Otsuka, Purdue, Rhodes, Sunovion, Tris Pharma, KemPharm, Supernus, Jazz, Corium, Tulex, and Lumos. Full disclosures are reported in the original article.

A version of this article first appeared on Medscape.com.

A once-daily oral stimulant medication for treatment of ADHD in individuals aged 6 years or older is safe and effective after 1 year of treatment, new research shows.

Results from a phase 3, multicenter, dose-optimization, open-label safety study of Azstarys (KemPharm) found that most treatment-emergent adverse events (TEAEs) were mild to moderate.

“This data show that Azstarys remains safe and effective for the treatment of ADHD when given for up to a year,” lead investigator Ann Childress, MD, president of the Center for Psychiatry and Behavioral Medicine, Las Vegas, said in an interview.

The study was published online in the Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology.
 

Safety at 1 year

The drug is a combination of extended-release serdexmethylphenidate (SDX), KemPharm’s prodrug of dexmethylphenidate, coformulated with immediate-release d-MPH.

SDX is converted to d-MPH after it is absorbed in the gastrointestinal tract. The d-MPH is released gradually throughout the day, providing quick symptom control with the d-MPH and extended control with SDX.

Azstarys was approved by the Food and Drug Administration in 2021 on the basis of results from a laboratory classroom phase 3 trial, which showed significant improvement in ADHD symptoms, compared with placebo.

For this study, the second phase 3 trial of Azstarys, investigators analyzed data from 282 children aged 6-12 years in the United States, including 70 who participated in an earlier 1-month efficacy trial.

After screening and a 3-week dose-optimization phase for new participants, patients received once-daily treatment with doses of 26.1 mg/5.2 mg, 39.2 mg/7.8 mg, or 52.3 mg/10.4 mg of SDX/d-MPH.

After 1 year of treatment, 60.1% of participants reported at least one TEAE, the majority of which were moderate. Twelve patients reported severe TEAEs. Six children (2.5%) discontinued the study because of a TEAE during the treatment phase.

The investigators also measured growth and changes in sleep with the Children’s Sleep Habits Questionnaire during the 12-month study. Sleep improved on most measures and the impact on growth was mild.

There were no life-threatening TEAEs and no deaths reported during the study.

The most common TEAEs during the treatment phase were decreased appetite, upper respiratory tract infection, nasopharyngitis, decreased weight, irritability, and increased weight.
 

Efficacy at 1 year

ADHD symptoms improved considerably after 1 month of treatment, with responses continuing at 1 year.

At baseline, participants’ mean ADHD Rating Scale–5 score was 41.5. After 1 month of treatment, scores averaged 16.1, a decline of –25.3 (P < .001).

The mean score stabilized in the 12-15 range for the remainder of the study. After 1 year of treatment, ADHD symptoms had decreased approximately 70% from baseline.

Investigators found similar results in clinical severity. After 1 month of treatment, the average Clinical Global Impressions–Severity (CGI-S) scale score was 2.5, a decline of –2.2 (P < .0001).

CGI-S scale scores remained in the 2.2-2.4 range for the remainder of the study.

These results, combined with the results of the original classroom trial, suggest Azstarys may offer advantages over other ADHD drugs, Dr. Childress said.

“In the laboratory classroom trial, subjects taking Azstarys completed significantly more math problems than subjects taking placebo beginning at 30 minutes and up to 13 hours after dosing,” Dr. Childress said. “No other methylphenidate extended-release product currently marketed in the United States has a 13-hour duration of effect.”
 

‘Reassuring data’

Commenting on the findings, Aditya Pawar, MD, a child and adolescent psychiatrist with the Kennedy Krieger Institute and an assistant professor of psychiatry and behavioral sciences at Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, said that the study suggests the drug may be a valuable addition to ADHD treatment options for pediatric patients.

“The study provides reassuring data on the safety of stimulants in patients without significant history of cardiac events or blood pressure changes, which are usual concerns among patients and clinicians despite the evidence supporting safety, said Dr. Pawar, who was not part of the study.

“Additionally, the 1-year data on efficacy and safety of a new stimulant medication is valuable for clinicians looking for sustained relief for their patients, despite the limitations of an open-label trial,” she added.

Overall, the safety data reported in the study are fairly consistent with the safety profile of other methylphenidates used for treating ADHD, Dr. Pawar said.

However, she noted, the study does have some limitations, including its open-label design and lack of blinding. The research also excluded children with autism, disruptive mood dysregulation disorders, and other common comorbidities of ADHD, which may limit the generalizability of the results.

“These comorbidities often require stimulants as a part of treatment, and yet have a higher risk of side effects,” Dr. Pawar said. “Future studies with a broader population may be needed to better understand treatment effectiveness and potential risks.”

The study was funded by KemPharm. Dr. Childress serves as consultant for Aardvark, Arbor, Attentive, Cingulate, Ironshore, Neos Therapeutics, Neurocentria, Otsuka, Purdue, Rhodes, Sunovion, Tris Pharma, KemPharm, Supernus, Jazz, Corium, Tulex, and Lumos.

A version of this article first appeared on Medscape.com.

A once-daily oral stimulant medication for treatment of ADHD in individuals aged 6 years or older is safe and effective after 1 year of treatment, new research shows.

Results from a phase 3, multicenter, dose-optimization, open-label safety study of Azstarys (KemPharm) found that most treatment-emergent adverse events (TEAEs) were mild to moderate.

“This data show that Azstarys remains safe and effective for the treatment of ADHD when given for up to a year,” lead investigator Ann Childress, MD, president of the Center for Psychiatry and Behavioral Medicine, Las Vegas, said in an interview.

The study was published online in the Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology.
 

Safety at 1 year

The drug is a combination of extended-release serdexmethylphenidate (SDX), KemPharm’s prodrug of dexmethylphenidate, coformulated with immediate-release d-MPH.

SDX is converted to d-MPH after it is absorbed in the gastrointestinal tract. The d-MPH is released gradually throughout the day, providing quick symptom control with the d-MPH and extended control with SDX.

Azstarys was approved by the Food and Drug Administration in 2021 on the basis of results from a laboratory classroom phase 3 trial, which showed significant improvement in ADHD symptoms, compared with placebo.

For this study, the second phase 3 trial of Azstarys, investigators analyzed data from 282 children aged 6-12 years in the United States, including 70 who participated in an earlier 1-month efficacy trial.

After screening and a 3-week dose-optimization phase for new participants, patients received once-daily treatment with doses of 26.1 mg/5.2 mg, 39.2 mg/7.8 mg, or 52.3 mg/10.4 mg of SDX/d-MPH.

After 1 year of treatment, 60.1% of participants reported at least one TEAE, the majority of which were moderate. Twelve patients reported severe TEAEs. Six children (2.5%) discontinued the study because of a TEAE during the treatment phase.

The investigators also measured growth and changes in sleep with the Children’s Sleep Habits Questionnaire during the 12-month study. Sleep improved on most measures and the impact on growth was mild.

There were no life-threatening TEAEs and no deaths reported during the study.

The most common TEAEs during the treatment phase were decreased appetite, upper respiratory tract infection, nasopharyngitis, decreased weight, irritability, and increased weight.
 

Efficacy at 1 year

ADHD symptoms improved considerably after 1 month of treatment, with responses continuing at 1 year.

At baseline, participants’ mean ADHD Rating Scale–5 score was 41.5. After 1 month of treatment, scores averaged 16.1, a decline of –25.3 (P < .001).

The mean score stabilized in the 12-15 range for the remainder of the study. After 1 year of treatment, ADHD symptoms had decreased approximately 70% from baseline.

Investigators found similar results in clinical severity. After 1 month of treatment, the average Clinical Global Impressions–Severity (CGI-S) scale score was 2.5, a decline of –2.2 (P < .0001).

CGI-S scale scores remained in the 2.2-2.4 range for the remainder of the study.

These results, combined with the results of the original classroom trial, suggest Azstarys may offer advantages over other ADHD drugs, Dr. Childress said.

“In the laboratory classroom trial, subjects taking Azstarys completed significantly more math problems than subjects taking placebo beginning at 30 minutes and up to 13 hours after dosing,” Dr. Childress said. “No other methylphenidate extended-release product currently marketed in the United States has a 13-hour duration of effect.”
 

‘Reassuring data’

Commenting on the findings, Aditya Pawar, MD, a child and adolescent psychiatrist with the Kennedy Krieger Institute and an assistant professor of psychiatry and behavioral sciences at Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, said that the study suggests the drug may be a valuable addition to ADHD treatment options for pediatric patients.

“The study provides reassuring data on the safety of stimulants in patients without significant history of cardiac events or blood pressure changes, which are usual concerns among patients and clinicians despite the evidence supporting safety, said Dr. Pawar, who was not part of the study.

“Additionally, the 1-year data on efficacy and safety of a new stimulant medication is valuable for clinicians looking for sustained relief for their patients, despite the limitations of an open-label trial,” she added.

Overall, the safety data reported in the study are fairly consistent with the safety profile of other methylphenidates used for treating ADHD, Dr. Pawar said.

However, she noted, the study does have some limitations, including its open-label design and lack of blinding. The research also excluded children with autism, disruptive mood dysregulation disorders, and other common comorbidities of ADHD, which may limit the generalizability of the results.

“These comorbidities often require stimulants as a part of treatment, and yet have a higher risk of side effects,” Dr. Pawar said. “Future studies with a broader population may be needed to better understand treatment effectiveness and potential risks.”

The study was funded by KemPharm. Dr. Childress serves as consultant for Aardvark, Arbor, Attentive, Cingulate, Ironshore, Neos Therapeutics, Neurocentria, Otsuka, Purdue, Rhodes, Sunovion, Tris Pharma, KemPharm, Supernus, Jazz, Corium, Tulex, and Lumos.

A version of this article first appeared on Medscape.com.

A once-daily oral stimulant medication for treatment of ADHD in individuals aged 6 years or older is safe and effective after 1 year of treatment, new research shows.

Results from a phase 3, multicenter, dose-optimization, open-label safety study of Azstarys (KemPharm) found that most treatment-emergent adverse events (TEAEs) were mild to moderate.

“This data show that Azstarys remains safe and effective for the treatment of ADHD when given for up to a year,” lead investigator Ann Childress, MD, president of the Center for Psychiatry and Behavioral Medicine, Las Vegas, said in an interview.

The study was published online in the Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology.
 

Safety at 1 year

The drug is a combination of extended-release serdexmethylphenidate (SDX), KemPharm’s prodrug of dexmethylphenidate, coformulated with immediate-release d-MPH.

SDX is converted to d-MPH after it is absorbed in the gastrointestinal tract. The d-MPH is released gradually throughout the day, providing quick symptom control with the d-MPH and extended control with SDX.

Azstarys was approved by the Food and Drug Administration in 2021 on the basis of results from a laboratory classroom phase 3 trial, which showed significant improvement in ADHD symptoms, compared with placebo.

For this study, the second phase 3 trial of Azstarys, investigators analyzed data from 282 children aged 6-12 years in the United States, including 70 who participated in an earlier 1-month efficacy trial.

After screening and a 3-week dose-optimization phase for new participants, patients received once-daily treatment with doses of 26.1 mg/5.2 mg, 39.2 mg/7.8 mg, or 52.3 mg/10.4 mg of SDX/d-MPH.

After 1 year of treatment, 60.1% of participants reported at least one TEAE, the majority of which were moderate. Twelve patients reported severe TEAEs. Six children (2.5%) discontinued the study because of a TEAE during the treatment phase.

The investigators also measured growth and changes in sleep with the Children’s Sleep Habits Questionnaire during the 12-month study. Sleep improved on most measures and the impact on growth was mild.

There were no life-threatening TEAEs and no deaths reported during the study.

The most common TEAEs during the treatment phase were decreased appetite, upper respiratory tract infection, nasopharyngitis, decreased weight, irritability, and increased weight.
 

Efficacy at 1 year

ADHD symptoms improved considerably after 1 month of treatment, with responses continuing at 1 year.

At baseline, participants’ mean ADHD Rating Scale–5 score was 41.5. After 1 month of treatment, scores averaged 16.1, a decline of –25.3 (P < .001).

The mean score stabilized in the 12-15 range for the remainder of the study. After 1 year of treatment, ADHD symptoms had decreased approximately 70% from baseline.

Investigators found similar results in clinical severity. After 1 month of treatment, the average Clinical Global Impressions–Severity (CGI-S) scale score was 2.5, a decline of –2.2 (P < .0001).

CGI-S scale scores remained in the 2.2-2.4 range for the remainder of the study.

These results, combined with the results of the original classroom trial, suggest Azstarys may offer advantages over other ADHD drugs, Dr. Childress said.

“In the laboratory classroom trial, subjects taking Azstarys completed significantly more math problems than subjects taking placebo beginning at 30 minutes and up to 13 hours after dosing,” Dr. Childress said. “No other methylphenidate extended-release product currently marketed in the United States has a 13-hour duration of effect.”
 

‘Reassuring data’

Commenting on the findings, Aditya Pawar, MD, a child and adolescent psychiatrist with the Kennedy Krieger Institute and an assistant professor of psychiatry and behavioral sciences at Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, said that the study suggests the drug may be a valuable addition to ADHD treatment options for pediatric patients.

“The study provides reassuring data on the safety of stimulants in patients without significant history of cardiac events or blood pressure changes, which are usual concerns among patients and clinicians despite the evidence supporting safety, said Dr. Pawar, who was not part of the study.

“Additionally, the 1-year data on efficacy and safety of a new stimulant medication is valuable for clinicians looking for sustained relief for their patients, despite the limitations of an open-label trial,” she added.

Overall, the safety data reported in the study are fairly consistent with the safety profile of other methylphenidates used for treating ADHD, Dr. Pawar said.

However, she noted, the study does have some limitations, including its open-label design and lack of blinding. The research also excluded children with autism, disruptive mood dysregulation disorders, and other common comorbidities of ADHD, which may limit the generalizability of the results.

“These comorbidities often require stimulants as a part of treatment, and yet have a higher risk of side effects,” Dr. Pawar said. “Future studies with a broader population may be needed to better understand treatment effectiveness and potential risks.”

The study was funded by KemPharm. Dr. Childress serves as consultant for Aardvark, Arbor, Attentive, Cingulate, Ironshore, Neos Therapeutics, Neurocentria, Otsuka, Purdue, Rhodes, Sunovion, Tris Pharma, KemPharm, Supernus, Jazz, Corium, Tulex, and Lumos.

A version of this article first appeared on Medscape.com.

Editor’s note: Readers’ Forum is a department for correspondence from readers that is not in response to articles published in Current Psychiatry. All submissions to Readers’ Forum undergo peer review and are subject to editing for length and style. For more information, contact letters@currentpsychiatry.com.

I (MZP) just completed my first semester of medical school. An important lesson imparted in my coursework so far has been to remain a staunch advocate for patients. Yet compared to the rigors of medical school, over the past year it has been far more difficult to help patients locate generic Adderall. Physicians were already overburdened with administrative responsibilities stretching into burnout territory well before the shortage, and now this! Unlike paper prescriptions of old, which patients could take to any pharmacy, e-prescribing apps require selection of a specific pharmacy, and controlled substances such as stimulants require 2-factor authentication. But if the designated pharmacy does not have the medication in stock, the entire process must be repeated with an alternative pharmacy, long after the visit has concluded.

To add insult to injury, the generic stimulant shortage has grown even worse. As of February 2023, generic Adderall remained hard to find and generic Concerta was also in short supply. How did this happen? In 1985, Bulow et al¹ coined the game theory concept of “strategic substitutes,” where (for example) as beef becomes less readily accessible, consumers may switch to eating chicken as their protein. Unable to locate generic Adderall, many patients have turned to generic Concerta as a substitute psychostimulant to continue management of their attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder.

In addition to the increase in demand, compounding the shortage is that one of the manufacturers of generic Concerta has discontinued production.² Branded methylphenidates and amphetamines, which are much more expensive than their generic counterparts, have remained in ample supply, but many insurers require trials of generics before considering coverage for more expensive brands.

Our approach to this situation

Each morning we call our local and chain pharmacies to take a census of their supply of generic stimulants. Some pharmacies refuse to release this information. Despite these census reports, we have found cases where patients have been turned away from pharmacies when they are not “regular customers,” while patients whom the pharmacies know retain access as “members.” Hence, a patient is unlikely to obtain these medications if their regular pharmacy is out of stock.

We want to share a workaround that has been effective. After unsuccessfully searching for generic stimulants at the patient’s regular pharmacy, I (RLP) write “dispense as written” for the closest branded version and file a prior authorization with the patient’s insurance company, noting “patient unable to trial any generic amphetamines or methylphenidates due to current nationwide shortage.” Even with the most difficult insurers, the response has been “a temporary 3-month authorization has been granted,” which is at least a small victory for our desperate patients and busy prescribers who are both struggling to negotiate a fragmented health care system.

Editor’s note: Readers’ Forum is a department for correspondence from readers that is not in response to articles published in Current Psychiatry. All submissions to Readers’ Forum undergo peer review and are subject to editing for length and style. For more information, contact letters@currentpsychiatry.com.

I (MZP) just completed my first semester of medical school. An important lesson imparted in my coursework so far has been to remain a staunch advocate for patients. Yet compared to the rigors of medical school, over the past year it has been far more difficult to help patients locate generic Adderall. Physicians were already overburdened with administrative responsibilities stretching into burnout territory well before the shortage, and now this! Unlike paper prescriptions of old, which patients could take to any pharmacy, e-prescribing apps require selection of a specific pharmacy, and controlled substances such as stimulants require 2-factor authentication. But if the designated pharmacy does not have the medication in stock, the entire process must be repeated with an alternative pharmacy, long after the visit has concluded.

To add insult to injury, the generic stimulant shortage has grown even worse. As of February 2023, generic Adderall remained hard to find and generic Concerta was also in short supply. How did this happen? In 1985, Bulow et al¹ coined the game theory concept of “strategic substitutes,” where (for example) as beef becomes less readily accessible, consumers may switch to eating chicken as their protein. Unable to locate generic Adderall, many patients have turned to generic Concerta as a substitute psychostimulant to continue management of their attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder.

In addition to the increase in demand, compounding the shortage is that one of the manufacturers of generic Concerta has discontinued production.² Branded methylphenidates and amphetamines, which are much more expensive than their generic counterparts, have remained in ample supply, but many insurers require trials of generics before considering coverage for more expensive brands.

Our approach to this situation

Each morning we call our local and chain pharmacies to take a census of their supply of generic stimulants. Some pharmacies refuse to release this information. Despite these census reports, we have found cases where patients have been turned away from pharmacies when they are not “regular customers,” while patients whom the pharmacies know retain access as “members.” Hence, a patient is unlikely to obtain these medications if their regular pharmacy is out of stock.

We want to share a workaround that has been effective. After unsuccessfully searching for generic stimulants at the patient’s regular pharmacy, I (RLP) write “dispense as written” for the closest branded version and file a prior authorization with the patient’s insurance company, noting “patient unable to trial any generic amphetamines or methylphenidates due to current nationwide shortage.” Even with the most difficult insurers, the response has been “a temporary 3-month authorization has been granted,” which is at least a small victory for our desperate patients and busy prescribers who are both struggling to negotiate a fragmented health care system.

Editor’s note: Readers’ Forum is a department for correspondence from readers that is not in response to articles published in Current Psychiatry. All submissions to Readers’ Forum undergo peer review and are subject to editing for length and style. For more information, contact letters@currentpsychiatry.com.

I (MZP) just completed my first semester of medical school. An important lesson imparted in my coursework so far has been to remain a staunch advocate for patients. Yet compared to the rigors of medical school, over the past year it has been far more difficult to help patients locate generic Adderall. Physicians were already overburdened with administrative responsibilities stretching into burnout territory well before the shortage, and now this! Unlike paper prescriptions of old, which patients could take to any pharmacy, e-prescribing apps require selection of a specific pharmacy, and controlled substances such as stimulants require 2-factor authentication. But if the designated pharmacy does not have the medication in stock, the entire process must be repeated with an alternative pharmacy, long after the visit has concluded.

To add insult to injury, the generic stimulant shortage has grown even worse. As of February 2023, generic Adderall remained hard to find and generic Concerta was also in short supply. How did this happen? In 1985, Bulow et al¹ coined the game theory concept of “strategic substitutes,” where (for example) as beef becomes less readily accessible, consumers may switch to eating chicken as their protein. Unable to locate generic Adderall, many patients have turned to generic Concerta as a substitute psychostimulant to continue management of their attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder.

In addition to the increase in demand, compounding the shortage is that one of the manufacturers of generic Concerta has discontinued production.² Branded methylphenidates and amphetamines, which are much more expensive than their generic counterparts, have remained in ample supply, but many insurers require trials of generics before considering coverage for more expensive brands.

Our approach to this situation

Each morning we call our local and chain pharmacies to take a census of their supply of generic stimulants. Some pharmacies refuse to release this information. Despite these census reports, we have found cases where patients have been turned away from pharmacies when they are not “regular customers,” while patients whom the pharmacies know retain access as “members.” Hence, a patient is unlikely to obtain these medications if their regular pharmacy is out of stock.

We want to share a workaround that has been effective. After unsuccessfully searching for generic stimulants at the patient’s regular pharmacy, I (RLP) write “dispense as written” for the closest branded version and file a prior authorization with the patient’s insurance company, noting “patient unable to trial any generic amphetamines or methylphenidates due to current nationwide shortage.” Even with the most difficult insurers, the response has been “a temporary 3-month authorization has been granted,” which is at least a small victory for our desperate patients and busy prescribers who are both struggling to negotiate a fragmented health care system.

There has been a substantial increase over the last 20 years in antipsychotic prescribing among children and adolescents in England – especially among those with autism, an analysis of primary care records from 7.2 million children and adolescents aged 3-18 years shows.

“This study demonstrates a concerning trend in antipsychotic prescribing in children and adolescents,” study investigator Matthias Pierce, PhD, senior research fellow at the University of Manchester (England) Center for Women’s Mental Health, who jointly led the study, said in a news release.

“We do not think the changes in prescribing necessarily relate to changes in clinical need; rather, it may be more likely to reflect changes in prescribing practice by clinicians,” Dr. Pierce said.

The study was published online in The Lancet Psychiatry.
 

Increase in long-term use

Between 2000 and 2019, prescriptions for antipsychotics nearly doubled from 0.06% to 0.11%.

The investigators note that the U.K.’s National Institute for Health and Care Excellence has approved the use of some antipsychotics in patients younger than age 18 with schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, and severely aggressive behavior attributable to conduct disorder.

However, these data suggest antipsychotics are being prescribed for an increasingly broad range of conditions, most commonly autism, but also for attention-deficit/ hyperactivity disorder, tic disorders like Tourrette syndrome, and learning difficulties.

“Broadening use of antipsychotics in developing young people begs questions about their safety over time and demands more research on this topic,” senior author Kathryn Abel, MBBS, PhD, from the University of Manchester said in the news release.

During the study period, antipsychotic prescribing in primary care increased by an average of 3.3% per year and the rate of first prescriptions increased by 2.2% per year.

The data also suggest that more children and adolescents are taking these powerful drugs for longer periods of time. The proportion receiving antipsychotics for at least 6 months after an initial prescription rose from 41.9% in 2000 to 62.8% in 2018.
 

Prescribing inequities

From 2009 onwards, more than 90% of prescriptions were for atypical antipsychotics.

Over time, risperidone dominated, with more than 60% of all prescriptions, followed by aripiprazole, quetiapine, olanzapine, and haloperidol as the most prescribed antipsychotics.

Boys and older children aged 15-18 years were most likely to receive an antipsychotic. However, the increasing trends were evident in all groups.

The data also point to inequities in prescribing as a result of deprivation levels, with typical antipsychotics prescribed more frequently in more deprived areas over time.

Dr. Pierce said he hopes this study will “help clinicians to evaluate the prescribing of antipsychotics to children more fully and will encourage them to consider better access to alternatives.”

Dr. Abel noted that antipsychotic medications “continue to have a valuable role in the treatment of serious mental illness. These findings represent a descriptive account of antipsychotic prescribing to children and adolescents in the U.K. today and provide a window onto current practice.”
 

Findings are no surprise

Emily Simonoff, MD, professor of child and adolescent psychiatry, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology & Neuroscience, King’s College London, offered perspective on the study in a statement from the U.K. nonprofit Science Media Centre.

“To clinicians, it will not be surprising that the authors demonstrate an increase in rates of prescriptions over that time period, as there has been a steadily emerging evidence base for the benefits of this group of medication for a range of different indications, which has been further supported by new licensing indications and recommendations from NICE,” Dr. Simonoff said.

For example, “there is good evidence for their benefits for other conditions such as irritability in autism spectrum disorder.

“However, it should also be noted that NICE recommendations for their use in many conditions is as part of a multimodal treatment plan, for example including psychological or behavioral interventions. It’s unclear from the study whether such recommendations were being followed or medication was being used on its own,” she added.

Dr. Simonoff also said it’s “reassuring” that prescribing rates remain very low in the youngest children and notes that the authors “rightly highlight the need for high-quality, longer-term studies on efficacy and, most importantly, adverse effects. This should be a research priority.”

The study had no funding. The authors report no relevant financial relationships. Dr. Simonoff is a member of the NICE guideline development group for the management of autism and has published on the efficacy of antipsychotic medication for irritability in autism.

A version of this article first appeared on Medscape.com.

There has been a substantial increase over the last 20 years in antipsychotic prescribing among children and adolescents in England – especially among those with autism, an analysis of primary care records from 7.2 million children and adolescents aged 3-18 years shows.

“This study demonstrates a concerning trend in antipsychotic prescribing in children and adolescents,” study investigator Matthias Pierce, PhD, senior research fellow at the University of Manchester (England) Center for Women’s Mental Health, who jointly led the study, said in a news release.

“We do not think the changes in prescribing necessarily relate to changes in clinical need; rather, it may be more likely to reflect changes in prescribing practice by clinicians,” Dr. Pierce said.

The study was published online in The Lancet Psychiatry.
 

Increase in long-term use

Between 2000 and 2019, prescriptions for antipsychotics nearly doubled from 0.06% to 0.11%.

The investigators note that the U.K.’s National Institute for Health and Care Excellence has approved the use of some antipsychotics in patients younger than age 18 with schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, and severely aggressive behavior attributable to conduct disorder.

However, these data suggest antipsychotics are being prescribed for an increasingly broad range of conditions, most commonly autism, but also for attention-deficit/ hyperactivity disorder, tic disorders like Tourrette syndrome, and learning difficulties.

“Broadening use of antipsychotics in developing young people begs questions about their safety over time and demands more research on this topic,” senior author Kathryn Abel, MBBS, PhD, from the University of Manchester said in the news release.

During the study period, antipsychotic prescribing in primary care increased by an average of 3.3% per year and the rate of first prescriptions increased by 2.2% per year.

The data also suggest that more children and adolescents are taking these powerful drugs for longer periods of time. The proportion receiving antipsychotics for at least 6 months after an initial prescription rose from 41.9% in 2000 to 62.8% in 2018.
 

Prescribing inequities

From 2009 onwards, more than 90% of prescriptions were for atypical antipsychotics.

Over time, risperidone dominated, with more than 60% of all prescriptions, followed by aripiprazole, quetiapine, olanzapine, and haloperidol as the most prescribed antipsychotics.

Boys and older children aged 15-18 years were most likely to receive an antipsychotic. However, the increasing trends were evident in all groups.

The data also point to inequities in prescribing as a result of deprivation levels, with typical antipsychotics prescribed more frequently in more deprived areas over time.

Dr. Pierce said he hopes this study will “help clinicians to evaluate the prescribing of antipsychotics to children more fully and will encourage them to consider better access to alternatives.”

Dr. Abel noted that antipsychotic medications “continue to have a valuable role in the treatment of serious mental illness. These findings represent a descriptive account of antipsychotic prescribing to children and adolescents in the U.K. today and provide a window onto current practice.”
 

Findings are no surprise

Emily Simonoff, MD, professor of child and adolescent psychiatry, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology & Neuroscience, King’s College London, offered perspective on the study in a statement from the U.K. nonprofit Science Media Centre.

“To clinicians, it will not be surprising that the authors demonstrate an increase in rates of prescriptions over that time period, as there has been a steadily emerging evidence base for the benefits of this group of medication for a range of different indications, which has been further supported by new licensing indications and recommendations from NICE,” Dr. Simonoff said.

For example, “there is good evidence for their benefits for other conditions such as irritability in autism spectrum disorder.

“However, it should also be noted that NICE recommendations for their use in many conditions is as part of a multimodal treatment plan, for example including psychological or behavioral interventions. It’s unclear from the study whether such recommendations were being followed or medication was being used on its own,” she added.

Dr. Simonoff also said it’s “reassuring” that prescribing rates remain very low in the youngest children and notes that the authors “rightly highlight the need for high-quality, longer-term studies on efficacy and, most importantly, adverse effects. This should be a research priority.”

The study had no funding. The authors report no relevant financial relationships. Dr. Simonoff is a member of the NICE guideline development group for the management of autism and has published on the efficacy of antipsychotic medication for irritability in autism.

A version of this article first appeared on Medscape.com.

There has been a substantial increase over the last 20 years in antipsychotic prescribing among children and adolescents in England – especially among those with autism, an analysis of primary care records from 7.2 million children and adolescents aged 3-18 years shows.

“This study demonstrates a concerning trend in antipsychotic prescribing in children and adolescents,” study investigator Matthias Pierce, PhD, senior research fellow at the University of Manchester (England) Center for Women’s Mental Health, who jointly led the study, said in a news release.

“We do not think the changes in prescribing necessarily relate to changes in clinical need; rather, it may be more likely to reflect changes in prescribing practice by clinicians,” Dr. Pierce said.

The study was published online in The Lancet Psychiatry.
 

Increase in long-term use

Between 2000 and 2019, prescriptions for antipsychotics nearly doubled from 0.06% to 0.11%.

The investigators note that the U.K.’s National Institute for Health and Care Excellence has approved the use of some antipsychotics in patients younger than age 18 with schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, and severely aggressive behavior attributable to conduct disorder.

However, these data suggest antipsychotics are being prescribed for an increasingly broad range of conditions, most commonly autism, but also for attention-deficit/ hyperactivity disorder, tic disorders like Tourrette syndrome, and learning difficulties.

“Broadening use of antipsychotics in developing young people begs questions about their safety over time and demands more research on this topic,” senior author Kathryn Abel, MBBS, PhD, from the University of Manchester said in the news release.

During the study period, antipsychotic prescribing in primary care increased by an average of 3.3% per year and the rate of first prescriptions increased by 2.2% per year.

The data also suggest that more children and adolescents are taking these powerful drugs for longer periods of time. The proportion receiving antipsychotics for at least 6 months after an initial prescription rose from 41.9% in 2000 to 62.8% in 2018.
 

Prescribing inequities

From 2009 onwards, more than 90% of prescriptions were for atypical antipsychotics.

Over time, risperidone dominated, with more than 60% of all prescriptions, followed by aripiprazole, quetiapine, olanzapine, and haloperidol as the most prescribed antipsychotics.

Boys and older children aged 15-18 years were most likely to receive an antipsychotic. However, the increasing trends were evident in all groups.

The data also point to inequities in prescribing as a result of deprivation levels, with typical antipsychotics prescribed more frequently in more deprived areas over time.

Dr. Pierce said he hopes this study will “help clinicians to evaluate the prescribing of antipsychotics to children more fully and will encourage them to consider better access to alternatives.”

Dr. Abel noted that antipsychotic medications “continue to have a valuable role in the treatment of serious mental illness. These findings represent a descriptive account of antipsychotic prescribing to children and adolescents in the U.K. today and provide a window onto current practice.”
 

Findings are no surprise

Emily Simonoff, MD, professor of child and adolescent psychiatry, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology & Neuroscience, King’s College London, offered perspective on the study in a statement from the U.K. nonprofit Science Media Centre.

“To clinicians, it will not be surprising that the authors demonstrate an increase in rates of prescriptions over that time period, as there has been a steadily emerging evidence base for the benefits of this group of medication for a range of different indications, which has been further supported by new licensing indications and recommendations from NICE,” Dr. Simonoff said.

For example, “there is good evidence for their benefits for other conditions such as irritability in autism spectrum disorder.

“However, it should also be noted that NICE recommendations for their use in many conditions is as part of a multimodal treatment plan, for example including psychological or behavioral interventions. It’s unclear from the study whether such recommendations were being followed or medication was being used on its own,” she added.

Dr. Simonoff also said it’s “reassuring” that prescribing rates remain very low in the youngest children and notes that the authors “rightly highlight the need for high-quality, longer-term studies on efficacy and, most importantly, adverse effects. This should be a research priority.”

The study had no funding. The authors report no relevant financial relationships. Dr. Simonoff is a member of the NICE guideline development group for the management of autism and has published on the efficacy of antipsychotic medication for irritability in autism.

A version of this article first appeared on Medscape.com.

Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is often a very challenging condition for parents to manage, both because of the “gleeful mayhem” children with ADHD manifest and because of the nature of effective treatments. Multiple randomized controlled studies and meta-analyses have demonstrated that stimulant medication with behavioral interventions is the optimal first-line treatment for children with both subtypes of ADHD, and that medications alone are superior to behavioral interventions alone. By improving attention and impulse control, the medications effectively decrease the many negative interactions with teachers, peers, and parents, aiding development and healthy self-esteem.

But many parents feel anxious about treating their young children with stimulants. Importantly, how children with ADHD will fare as adults is not predicted by their symptom level, but instead by the quality of their relationships with their parents, their ability to perform at school, and their social skills. Bring this framework to parents as you listen to their questions and help them decide on the best approach for their family. To assist you in these conversations, we will review the evidence for (or against) several of the most common alternatives to medication that parents are likely to ask about.
 

Diets and supplements

Dietary modifications are among the most popular “natural” approaches to managing ADHD in children. Diets that eliminate processed sugars or food additives (particularly artificial food coloring) are among the most common approaches discussed in the lay press. These diets are usually very time-consuming and disruptive for families to follow, and there is no evidence to support their general use in ADHD management. Those studies that rigorously examined them suggest that, for children with severe impairment who have failed to respond to medications for ADHD, a workup for food intolerance or nutritional deficits may reveal a different problem underlying their behavioral difficulties.¹

Similarly, supplementation with high-dose omega-3 fatty acids is modestly helpful only in a subset of children with ADHD symptoms, and not nearly as effective as medications or behavioral interventions. Spending time on an exacting diet or buying expensive supplements is very unlikely to relieve the children’s symptoms and may only add to their stress at home. The “sugar high” parents note may be the rare joy of eating a candy bar and not sugar causing ADHD. Offer parents the guidance to focus on a healthy diet, high in fruits and vegetables, whole grains, and healthy protein, and on meals that emphasize family time instead of struggles around food.
 

Neurofeedback

Neurofeedback is an approach that grew out of the observation that many adults with ADHD had resting patterns of brain wave activity different from those of neurotypical adults. In neurofeedback, patients learn strategies that amplify the brain waves associated with focused mental activity, rather than listless or hyperactive states. Businesses market this service for all sorts of illnesses and challenges, ADHD chief among them. Despite the marketing, there are very few randomized controlled studies of this intervention for ADHD in youth, and those have shown only the possibility of a benefit.

While there is no evidence of serious side effects, these treatments are time-consuming and expensive and unlikely to be covered by any insurance. You might suggest to parents that they could achieve some of the same theoretical benefits by looking for hobbies that invite sustained focus in their children. That is, they should think about activities that interest the children, such as music lessons or karate, that they could practice in classes and at home. If the children find these activities even somewhat interesting (or just enjoy the reward of their parents’ or teachers’ attention), regular practice will be supporting their developing attention while building social skills and authentic self-confidence, rather than the activities feeling like a treatment for an illness or condition.

Sleep and exercise

There are not many businesses or books selling worried and exhausted parents a quick nonmedication solution for their children’s ADHD in the form of healthy sleep and exercise habits. But these are safe and healthy ways to reduce symptoms and support development. Children with ADHD often enjoy and benefit from participating in a sport, and daily exercise can help with sleep and regulating their energy. They also often have difficulty with sleep initiation, and commonly do not get adequate or restful sleep. Inadequate sleep exacerbates inattention, distractibility, and irritability. Children with untreated ADHD also often spend a lot of time on screens, as it is difficult for them to shift away from rewarding activities, and parents can find screen time to be a welcome break from hyperactivity and negative interactions. But excessive screen time, especially close to bedtime, can worsen irritability and make sleep more difficult. Talk with parents about the value of establishing a routine around screen time, modest daily physical activity, and sleep that everyone can follow. If their family life is currently marked by late bedtimes and long hours in front of video games, this change will take effort. But within a few weeks, it could lead to significant improvements in energy, attention, and interactions at home.

Behavioral treatments

Effective behavioral treatments for ADHD do not change ADHD symptoms, but they do help children learn how to manage them. In “parent management training,” younger children and parents learn together how to avoid negative cycles of behavior (i.e., temper outbursts) by focusing on consistent routines and consequences that support children calmly learning to manage their impulses. The only other evidence-based treatment focuses on helping school age and older children develop executive functions – their planning, organization, and time management skills – with a range of age-appropriate tools. Both of these therapies may be more effective if the children are also receiving medication, but medication is not necessary for them to be helpful. It is important to note that play therapy and other evidence-based psychotherapies are not effective for management of ADHD, although they may treat comorbid problems.

Parent treatment

You may have diagnosed children with ADHD only to hear their parents respond by saying that they suspect (or know) that they (or their spouses) also have ADHD. This would not be surprising, as ADHD has one of the highest rates of heritability of psychiatric disorders, at 80%. Somewhere between 25% and 50% of parents of children with ADHD have ADHD themselves.² Screening for adults with ADHD, such as the Adult ADHD Self-Report Scale, is widely available and free. Speak with parents about the fact that behavioral treatments for their children’s ADHD are demanding. Such treatments require patience, calm, organization, and consistency.

If parents have ADHD, it may be very helpful for them to prioritize their own effective treatments, so that their attention and impulse control will support their parenting. They may be interested in learning about how treatment might also improve their performance at work and even the quality of their relationships. While there is some evidence that their children’s treatment outcome will hinge on the parents’ treatment,³ they deserve good care independent of the expectations of parenting.

Families benefit from a comprehensive “ADHD plan” for their children. This would start with an assessment of the severity of their children’s symptoms, specifying their impairment at home, school, and in social relationships. It would include their nonacademic performance, exploration of interests, and developing self-confidence. All of these considerations lead to setting reasonable expectations so the children can feel successful. Parents should think about how best to structure their children’s schedules to promote healthy sleep, exercise, and nutrition, and to expand opportunities for building their frustration tolerance, social skills, and executive function.

Parents will need to consider what kind of supports they themselves need to offer this structure. There are good resources available online for information and support, including Children and Adults with ADHD (chadd.org) and the ADHD Resource Center from the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry (aacap.org). This approach may help parents to evaluate the potential risks and benefits of medications as a component of treatment. Most of the quick fixes for childhood ADHD on the market will take a family’s time and money without providing meaningful improvement. Parents should focus instead on the tried-and-true routines and supports that will help them to create the setting at home that will enable their children to flourish.
 

Dr. Swick is physician in chief at Ohana, Center for Child and Adolescent Behavioral Health, Community Hospital of the Monterey (Calif.) Peninsula. Dr. Jellinek is professor emeritus of psychiatry and pediatrics, Harvard Medical School, Boston. Email them at [email protected].

References

1. Millichap JG and Yee MM. Pediatrics. 2012 Feb;129(2):330-7.

2. Grimm O et al. Curr Psychiatry Rep. 2020 Feb 27;22(4):18.

3. Chronis-Tuscano A et al. J Abnorm Child Psychol. 2017 Apr;45(3):501-7.

Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is often a very challenging condition for parents to manage, both because of the “gleeful mayhem” children with ADHD manifest and because of the nature of effective treatments. Multiple randomized controlled studies and meta-analyses have demonstrated that stimulant medication with behavioral interventions is the optimal first-line treatment for children with both subtypes of ADHD, and that medications alone are superior to behavioral interventions alone. By improving attention and impulse control, the medications effectively decrease the many negative interactions with teachers, peers, and parents, aiding development and healthy self-esteem.

But many parents feel anxious about treating their young children with stimulants. Importantly, how children with ADHD will fare as adults is not predicted by their symptom level, but instead by the quality of their relationships with their parents, their ability to perform at school, and their social skills. Bring this framework to parents as you listen to their questions and help them decide on the best approach for their family. To assist you in these conversations, we will review the evidence for (or against) several of the most common alternatives to medication that parents are likely to ask about.
 

Diets and supplements

Dietary modifications are among the most popular “natural” approaches to managing ADHD in children. Diets that eliminate processed sugars or food additives (particularly artificial food coloring) are among the most common approaches discussed in the lay press. These diets are usually very time-consuming and disruptive for families to follow, and there is no evidence to support their general use in ADHD management. Those studies that rigorously examined them suggest that, for children with severe impairment who have failed to respond to medications for ADHD, a workup for food intolerance or nutritional deficits may reveal a different problem underlying their behavioral difficulties.¹

Similarly, supplementation with high-dose omega-3 fatty acids is modestly helpful only in a subset of children with ADHD symptoms, and not nearly as effective as medications or behavioral interventions. Spending time on an exacting diet or buying expensive supplements is very unlikely to relieve the children’s symptoms and may only add to their stress at home. The “sugar high” parents note may be the rare joy of eating a candy bar and not sugar causing ADHD. Offer parents the guidance to focus on a healthy diet, high in fruits and vegetables, whole grains, and healthy protein, and on meals that emphasize family time instead of struggles around food.
 

Neurofeedback

Neurofeedback is an approach that grew out of the observation that many adults with ADHD had resting patterns of brain wave activity different from those of neurotypical adults. In neurofeedback, patients learn strategies that amplify the brain waves associated with focused mental activity, rather than listless or hyperactive states. Businesses market this service for all sorts of illnesses and challenges, ADHD chief among them. Despite the marketing, there are very few randomized controlled studies of this intervention for ADHD in youth, and those have shown only the possibility of a benefit.

While there is no evidence of serious side effects, these treatments are time-consuming and expensive and unlikely to be covered by any insurance. You might suggest to parents that they could achieve some of the same theoretical benefits by looking for hobbies that invite sustained focus in their children. That is, they should think about activities that interest the children, such as music lessons or karate, that they could practice in classes and at home. If the children find these activities even somewhat interesting (or just enjoy the reward of their parents’ or teachers’ attention), regular practice will be supporting their developing attention while building social skills and authentic self-confidence, rather than the activities feeling like a treatment for an illness or condition.

Sleep and exercise

There are not many businesses or books selling worried and exhausted parents a quick nonmedication solution for their children’s ADHD in the form of healthy sleep and exercise habits. But these are safe and healthy ways to reduce symptoms and support development. Children with ADHD often enjoy and benefit from participating in a sport, and daily exercise can help with sleep and regulating their energy. They also often have difficulty with sleep initiation, and commonly do not get adequate or restful sleep. Inadequate sleep exacerbates inattention, distractibility, and irritability. Children with untreated ADHD also often spend a lot of time on screens, as it is difficult for them to shift away from rewarding activities, and parents can find screen time to be a welcome break from hyperactivity and negative interactions. But excessive screen time, especially close to bedtime, can worsen irritability and make sleep more difficult. Talk with parents about the value of establishing a routine around screen time, modest daily physical activity, and sleep that everyone can follow. If their family life is currently marked by late bedtimes and long hours in front of video games, this change will take effort. But within a few weeks, it could lead to significant improvements in energy, attention, and interactions at home.

Behavioral treatments

Effective behavioral treatments for ADHD do not change ADHD symptoms, but they do help children learn how to manage them. In “parent management training,” younger children and parents learn together how to avoid negative cycles of behavior (i.e., temper outbursts) by focusing on consistent routines and consequences that support children calmly learning to manage their impulses. The only other evidence-based treatment focuses on helping school age and older children develop executive functions – their planning, organization, and time management skills – with a range of age-appropriate tools. Both of these therapies may be more effective if the children are also receiving medication, but medication is not necessary for them to be helpful. It is important to note that play therapy and other evidence-based psychotherapies are not effective for management of ADHD, although they may treat comorbid problems.

Parent treatment

You may have diagnosed children with ADHD only to hear their parents respond by saying that they suspect (or know) that they (or their spouses) also have ADHD. This would not be surprising, as ADHD has one of the highest rates of heritability of psychiatric disorders, at 80%. Somewhere between 25% and 50% of parents of children with ADHD have ADHD themselves.² Screening for adults with ADHD, such as the Adult ADHD Self-Report Scale, is widely available and free. Speak with parents about the fact that behavioral treatments for their children’s ADHD are demanding. Such treatments require patience, calm, organization, and consistency.

If parents have ADHD, it may be very helpful for them to prioritize their own effective treatments, so that their attention and impulse control will support their parenting. They may be interested in learning about how treatment might also improve their performance at work and even the quality of their relationships. While there is some evidence that their children’s treatment outcome will hinge on the parents’ treatment,³ they deserve good care independent of the expectations of parenting.

Families benefit from a comprehensive “ADHD plan” for their children. This would start with an assessment of the severity of their children’s symptoms, specifying their impairment at home, school, and in social relationships. It would include their nonacademic performance, exploration of interests, and developing self-confidence. All of these considerations lead to setting reasonable expectations so the children can feel successful. Parents should think about how best to structure their children’s schedules to promote healthy sleep, exercise, and nutrition, and to expand opportunities for building their frustration tolerance, social skills, and executive function.

Parents will need to consider what kind of supports they themselves need to offer this structure. There are good resources available online for information and support, including Children and Adults with ADHD (chadd.org) and the ADHD Resource Center from the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry (aacap.org). This approach may help parents to evaluate the potential risks and benefits of medications as a component of treatment. Most of the quick fixes for childhood ADHD on the market will take a family’s time and money without providing meaningful improvement. Parents should focus instead on the tried-and-true routines and supports that will help them to create the setting at home that will enable their children to flourish.
 

Dr. Swick is physician in chief at Ohana, Center for Child and Adolescent Behavioral Health, Community Hospital of the Monterey (Calif.) Peninsula. Dr. Jellinek is professor emeritus of psychiatry and pediatrics, Harvard Medical School, Boston. Email them at [email protected].

References

1. Millichap JG and Yee MM. Pediatrics. 2012 Feb;129(2):330-7.

2. Grimm O et al. Curr Psychiatry Rep. 2020 Feb 27;22(4):18.

3. Chronis-Tuscano A et al. J Abnorm Child Psychol. 2017 Apr;45(3):501-7.

Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is often a very challenging condition for parents to manage, both because of the “gleeful mayhem” children with ADHD manifest and because of the nature of effective treatments. Multiple randomized controlled studies and meta-analyses have demonstrated that stimulant medication with behavioral interventions is the optimal first-line treatment for children with both subtypes of ADHD, and that medications alone are superior to behavioral interventions alone. By improving attention and impulse control, the medications effectively decrease the many negative interactions with teachers, peers, and parents, aiding development and healthy self-esteem.

But many parents feel anxious about treating their young children with stimulants. Importantly, how children with ADHD will fare as adults is not predicted by their symptom level, but instead by the quality of their relationships with their parents, their ability to perform at school, and their social skills. Bring this framework to parents as you listen to their questions and help them decide on the best approach for their family. To assist you in these conversations, we will review the evidence for (or against) several of the most common alternatives to medication that parents are likely to ask about.
 

Diets and supplements

Dietary modifications are among the most popular “natural” approaches to managing ADHD in children. Diets that eliminate processed sugars or food additives (particularly artificial food coloring) are among the most common approaches discussed in the lay press. These diets are usually very time-consuming and disruptive for families to follow, and there is no evidence to support their general use in ADHD management. Those studies that rigorously examined them suggest that, for children with severe impairment who have failed to respond to medications for ADHD, a workup for food intolerance or nutritional deficits may reveal a different problem underlying their behavioral difficulties.¹

Similarly, supplementation with high-dose omega-3 fatty acids is modestly helpful only in a subset of children with ADHD symptoms, and not nearly as effective as medications or behavioral interventions. Spending time on an exacting diet or buying expensive supplements is very unlikely to relieve the children’s symptoms and may only add to their stress at home. The “sugar high” parents note may be the rare joy of eating a candy bar and not sugar causing ADHD. Offer parents the guidance to focus on a healthy diet, high in fruits and vegetables, whole grains, and healthy protein, and on meals that emphasize family time instead of struggles around food.
 

Neurofeedback

Neurofeedback is an approach that grew out of the observation that many adults with ADHD had resting patterns of brain wave activity different from those of neurotypical adults. In neurofeedback, patients learn strategies that amplify the brain waves associated with focused mental activity, rather than listless or hyperactive states. Businesses market this service for all sorts of illnesses and challenges, ADHD chief among them. Despite the marketing, there are very few randomized controlled studies of this intervention for ADHD in youth, and those have shown only the possibility of a benefit.

While there is no evidence of serious side effects, these treatments are time-consuming and expensive and unlikely to be covered by any insurance. You might suggest to parents that they could achieve some of the same theoretical benefits by looking for hobbies that invite sustained focus in their children. That is, they should think about activities that interest the children, such as music lessons or karate, that they could practice in classes and at home. If the children find these activities even somewhat interesting (or just enjoy the reward of their parents’ or teachers’ attention), regular practice will be supporting their developing attention while building social skills and authentic self-confidence, rather than the activities feeling like a treatment for an illness or condition.

Sleep and exercise

There are not many businesses or books selling worried and exhausted parents a quick nonmedication solution for their children’s ADHD in the form of healthy sleep and exercise habits. But these are safe and healthy ways to reduce symptoms and support development. Children with ADHD often enjoy and benefit from participating in a sport, and daily exercise can help with sleep and regulating their energy. They also often have difficulty with sleep initiation, and commonly do not get adequate or restful sleep. Inadequate sleep exacerbates inattention, distractibility, and irritability. Children with untreated ADHD also often spend a lot of time on screens, as it is difficult for them to shift away from rewarding activities, and parents can find screen time to be a welcome break from hyperactivity and negative interactions. But excessive screen time, especially close to bedtime, can worsen irritability and make sleep more difficult. Talk with parents about the value of establishing a routine around screen time, modest daily physical activity, and sleep that everyone can follow. If their family life is currently marked by late bedtimes and long hours in front of video games, this change will take effort. But within a few weeks, it could lead to significant improvements in energy, attention, and interactions at home.

Behavioral treatments

Effective behavioral treatments for ADHD do not change ADHD symptoms, but they do help children learn how to manage them. In “parent management training,” younger children and parents learn together how to avoid negative cycles of behavior (i.e., temper outbursts) by focusing on consistent routines and consequences that support children calmly learning to manage their impulses. The only other evidence-based treatment focuses on helping school age and older children develop executive functions – their planning, organization, and time management skills – with a range of age-appropriate tools. Both of these therapies may be more effective if the children are also receiving medication, but medication is not necessary for them to be helpful. It is important to note that play therapy and other evidence-based psychotherapies are not effective for management of ADHD, although they may treat comorbid problems.

Parent treatment

You may have diagnosed children with ADHD only to hear their parents respond by saying that they suspect (or know) that they (or their spouses) also have ADHD. This would not be surprising, as ADHD has one of the highest rates of heritability of psychiatric disorders, at 80%. Somewhere between 25% and 50% of parents of children with ADHD have ADHD themselves.² Screening for adults with ADHD, such as the Adult ADHD Self-Report Scale, is widely available and free. Speak with parents about the fact that behavioral treatments for their children’s ADHD are demanding. Such treatments require patience, calm, organization, and consistency.

If parents have ADHD, it may be very helpful for them to prioritize their own effective treatments, so that their attention and impulse control will support their parenting. They may be interested in learning about how treatment might also improve their performance at work and even the quality of their relationships. While there is some evidence that their children’s treatment outcome will hinge on the parents’ treatment,³ they deserve good care independent of the expectations of parenting.

Families benefit from a comprehensive “ADHD plan” for their children. This would start with an assessment of the severity of their children’s symptoms, specifying their impairment at home, school, and in social relationships. It would include their nonacademic performance, exploration of interests, and developing self-confidence. All of these considerations lead to setting reasonable expectations so the children can feel successful. Parents should think about how best to structure their children’s schedules to promote healthy sleep, exercise, and nutrition, and to expand opportunities for building their frustration tolerance, social skills, and executive function.

Parents will need to consider what kind of supports they themselves need to offer this structure. There are good resources available online for information and support, including Children and Adults with ADHD (chadd.org) and the ADHD Resource Center from the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry (aacap.org). This approach may help parents to evaluate the potential risks and benefits of medications as a component of treatment. Most of the quick fixes for childhood ADHD on the market will take a family’s time and money without providing meaningful improvement. Parents should focus instead on the tried-and-true routines and supports that will help them to create the setting at home that will enable their children to flourish.
 

Dr. Swick is physician in chief at Ohana, Center for Child and Adolescent Behavioral Health, Community Hospital of the Monterey (Calif.) Peninsula. Dr. Jellinek is professor emeritus of psychiatry and pediatrics, Harvard Medical School, Boston. Email them at [email protected].

References

1. Millichap JG and Yee MM. Pediatrics. 2012 Feb;129(2):330-7.

2. Grimm O et al. Curr Psychiatry Rep. 2020 Feb 27;22(4):18.

3. Chronis-Tuscano A et al. J Abnorm Child Psychol. 2017 Apr;45(3):501-7.

Editor’s note: Readers’ Forum is a department for correspondence from readers that is not in response to articles published in Current Psychiatry . All submissions to Readers’ Forum undergo peer review and are subject to editing for length and style. For more information, contact [email protected].

I (MZP) recently started medical school, and one of the first things we learned in our Human Dimension class was to listen to our patients. While this may seem prosaic to seasoned practitioners, I quickly realized the important, real-world consequences of doing so.

Clinicians rightfully presume that when they send a prescription to a pharmacy, the patient will receive what they have ordered or the generic equivalent unless it is ordered “Dispense as written.” Unfortunately, a confluence of increased demand and supply chain disruptions has produced nationwide shortages of generic Adderall extended-release (XR) and Adderall, which are commonly prescribed to patients with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).¹ While pharmacies should notify patients when they do not have these medications in stock, we have encountered numerous cases where due to shortages, prescriptions for generic dextroamphetamine/amphetamine salts XR or immediate-release (IR) have been filled with the same milligrams of only dextroamphetamine XR or IR, respectively, without notifying the patient or the prescribing clinician. Pharmacies have included several national chains and local independent stores in the New York/New Jersey region.

Over the past several months, we have encountered patients who had been well stabilized on their ADHD medication regimen who began to report anxiety, jitteriness, agitation, fatigue, poor concentration, and/or hyperactivity, and who also reported that their pills “look different.” First, we considered their symptoms could be attributed to a switch between generic manufacturers. However, upon further inspection, we discovered that the medication name printed on the label was different from what had been prescribed. We confirmed this by checking the Prescription Monitoring Program database.

Pharmacists have recently won prescribing privileges for nirmatrelvir/ritonavir (Paxlovid) to treat COVID-19, but they certainly are not permitted to fill prescriptions for psychoactive controlled substances that have different pharmacologic profiles than the medication the clinician ordered. Adderall contains D-amphetamine and L-amphetamine in a ratio of 3:1, which makes it different in potency from dextroamphetamine alone and requires adjustment to the dosage and potentially to the frequency to achieve near equivalency.

Once we realized the issue and helped our patients locate a pharmacy that had generic Adderall XR and Adderall in stock so they could resume their previous regimen, their symptoms resolved.

It is important for all clinicians to add “medication substitution reaction” to their differential diagnosis of new-onset ADHD-related symptoms in previously stable patients.

Editor’s note: Readers’ Forum is a department for correspondence from readers that is not in response to articles published in Current Psychiatry . All submissions to Readers’ Forum undergo peer review and are subject to editing for length and style. For more information, contact [email protected].

I (MZP) recently started medical school, and one of the first things we learned in our Human Dimension class was to listen to our patients. While this may seem prosaic to seasoned practitioners, I quickly realized the important, real-world consequences of doing so.

Clinicians rightfully presume that when they send a prescription to a pharmacy, the patient will receive what they have ordered or the generic equivalent unless it is ordered “Dispense as written.” Unfortunately, a confluence of increased demand and supply chain disruptions has produced nationwide shortages of generic Adderall extended-release (XR) and Adderall, which are commonly prescribed to patients with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).¹ While pharmacies should notify patients when they do not have these medications in stock, we have encountered numerous cases where due to shortages, prescriptions for generic dextroamphetamine/amphetamine salts XR or immediate-release (IR) have been filled with the same milligrams of only dextroamphetamine XR or IR, respectively, without notifying the patient or the prescribing clinician. Pharmacies have included several national chains and local independent stores in the New York/New Jersey region.

Over the past several months, we have encountered patients who had been well stabilized on their ADHD medication regimen who began to report anxiety, jitteriness, agitation, fatigue, poor concentration, and/or hyperactivity, and who also reported that their pills “look different.” First, we considered their symptoms could be attributed to a switch between generic manufacturers. However, upon further inspection, we discovered that the medication name printed on the label was different from what had been prescribed. We confirmed this by checking the Prescription Monitoring Program database.

Pharmacists have recently won prescribing privileges for nirmatrelvir/ritonavir (Paxlovid) to treat COVID-19, but they certainly are not permitted to fill prescriptions for psychoactive controlled substances that have different pharmacologic profiles than the medication the clinician ordered. Adderall contains D-amphetamine and L-amphetamine in a ratio of 3:1, which makes it different in potency from dextroamphetamine alone and requires adjustment to the dosage and potentially to the frequency to achieve near equivalency.

Once we realized the issue and helped our patients locate a pharmacy that had generic Adderall XR and Adderall in stock so they could resume their previous regimen, their symptoms resolved.

It is important for all clinicians to add “medication substitution reaction” to their differential diagnosis of new-onset ADHD-related symptoms in previously stable patients.

Editor’s note: Readers’ Forum is a department for correspondence from readers that is not in response to articles published in Current Psychiatry . All submissions to Readers’ Forum undergo peer review and are subject to editing for length and style. For more information, contact [email protected].

I (MZP) recently started medical school, and one of the first things we learned in our Human Dimension class was to listen to our patients. While this may seem prosaic to seasoned practitioners, I quickly realized the important, real-world consequences of doing so.

Clinicians rightfully presume that when they send a prescription to a pharmacy, the patient will receive what they have ordered or the generic equivalent unless it is ordered “Dispense as written.” Unfortunately, a confluence of increased demand and supply chain disruptions has produced nationwide shortages of generic Adderall extended-release (XR) and Adderall, which are commonly prescribed to patients with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).¹ While pharmacies should notify patients when they do not have these medications in stock, we have encountered numerous cases where due to shortages, prescriptions for generic dextroamphetamine/amphetamine salts XR or immediate-release (IR) have been filled with the same milligrams of only dextroamphetamine XR or IR, respectively, without notifying the patient or the prescribing clinician. Pharmacies have included several national chains and local independent stores in the New York/New Jersey region.

Over the past several months, we have encountered patients who had been well stabilized on their ADHD medication regimen who began to report anxiety, jitteriness, agitation, fatigue, poor concentration, and/or hyperactivity, and who also reported that their pills “look different.” First, we considered their symptoms could be attributed to a switch between generic manufacturers. However, upon further inspection, we discovered that the medication name printed on the label was different from what had been prescribed. We confirmed this by checking the Prescription Monitoring Program database.

Pharmacists have recently won prescribing privileges for nirmatrelvir/ritonavir (Paxlovid) to treat COVID-19, but they certainly are not permitted to fill prescriptions for psychoactive controlled substances that have different pharmacologic profiles than the medication the clinician ordered. Adderall contains D-amphetamine and L-amphetamine in a ratio of 3:1, which makes it different in potency from dextroamphetamine alone and requires adjustment to the dosage and potentially to the frequency to achieve near equivalency.

Once we realized the issue and helped our patients locate a pharmacy that had generic Adderall XR and Adderall in stock so they could resume their previous regimen, their symptoms resolved.

It is important for all clinicians to add “medication substitution reaction” to their differential diagnosis of new-onset ADHD-related symptoms in previously stable patients.

VIENNA – Prescription drugs designed to boost cognition in neurodevelopmental disorders do not increase overall cognitive performance in healthy individuals – and may even reduce productivity, new research suggests.

In a randomized controlled trial, 40 healthy adults were given the attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) treatments methylphenidate or dexamphetamine or the wakefulness-promoting drug modafinil vs. placebo.

While receiving the so-called “smart drugs,” participants spent more time and made more moves more quickly while solving each problem on a complex cognitive task than when given the placebo. But with no significant improvement in overall performance, all drugs were associated with a significant reduction in efficiency.

The findings “reinforce the idea that, while the drugs administered were motivational, the resulting increase in effort came at a cost in the loss of productivity,” said study presenter David Coghill, MD, PhD, chair of developmental mental health, the University of Melbourne.

This was especially true for individuals who scored high when receiving placebo, “who ended up producing below average productivity when on the drugs,” he noted.

“Overall, these drugs don’t increase the performance. Instead, they cause a regression to the mean, and appear to have a more negative effect on those who performed best at baseline,” Dr. Coghill added.

He presented the findings at the 35th European College of Neuropsychopharmacology (ECNP) Congress.
 

Past evidence ambiguous

Dr. Coghill noted that prescription-only stimulant drugs are increasingly used by employees and students as “smart drugs” to enhance workplace or academic productivity.

He conducted the study with colleagues from the department of economics at his institution, because of “their interest in people using cognitive enhancers within the financial industry, in the hope that that would increase their productivity in what is a very competitive industry on the floor of the trading rooms.”

However, while “there’s a subjective belief” that these drugs are effective as cognitive enhancers, the evidence to actually demonstrate that in healthy individuals “is, at best, ambiguous,” he told meeting attendees.

Improvements in cognitive capacities, such as working memory and improved planning, are most evident in clinical populations such as those with ADHD, which could be due to a “ceiling effect” of the cognitive tasks in healthy individuals, Dr. Coghill noted.

To investigate further, the researchers conducted a randomized, double-blinded trial of standard adult doses of methylphenidate (30 mg), dexamphetamine (15 mg), and modafinil (200 mg) vs. placebo. The healthy participants (n = 40), all of whom were aged 18-35 years, crossed to each of the other treatment groups over the course of four intervention sessions.

All were asked to solve eight instances of the knapsack task, the aim of which is to place theoretical objects in a knapsack to achieve the maximum value within a certain weight limit.

“This looks very simple but as the number of items increases, it becomes incredibly complex to compute, and actually is not computable using standard approaches. You have to deal with trial and error,” Dr. Coghill said.

The participants also completed several CANTAB cognitive tasks.

‘Surprising’ findings

Results showed that, overall, the drugs did not have a significant effect on task performance (slope = –0.16; P = .011).

Moreover, the drugs, both individually and collectively, had a significant negative effect on the value attained during any one attempt at the knapsack task (slope = –0.003; P = .02), an effect that extended “across the whole range” of task complexity, Dr. Coghill reported.

He went on to show that “participants actually looked as if they were working harder” when they took the three active drugs than when they were given a placebo. They also “spent more time solving each problem,” he added.

When taking the active drugs, participants made more moves during each task than when taking placebo, and made their moves more quickly.

“So these medications increased motivation,” Dr. Coghill said. “If you were sitting [and] watching this person, you would think that they were working harder.”

Yet their productivity, defined as the average gain in value per move on the knapsack task, was lower. Regression analysis identified a “significant and sizable drop in productivity” vs. placebo, Dr. Coghill noted.

This was the case for methylphenidate (P < .001), dexamphetamine (P < .001), and modafinil (P < .05), “whether you looked at the mean or median performance,” he said.

“Breaking it down a little bit more, when you looked at the individual participant level, you find substantial heterogeneity across participants,” noted Dr. Coghill.

“More than that, we found a significant negative correlation between productivity under methylphenidate compared to productivity under placebo, and this suggests a regression to the mean,” with participants who performed better under placebo performing worse with methylphenidate, he explained.

While the relationship was “exactly the same with modafinil,” it was not found with dexamphetamine, with a strong negative correlation between the productivity effects between dexamphetamine and methylphenidate (slope = –0.29; P < .0001).

“This is surprising because we assume that methylphenidate and dexamphetamine are working in very similar ways,” Dr. Coghill said.
 

Time to rethink, rewind?

Commenting for this article, session chair John F. Cryan, PhD, department of anatomy and neuroscience, University College Cork, Ireland, said that, based on the current data, “we might need to rethink [how] ‘smart’ psychopharmacological agents are.”

Dr. Cryan, chair of the ECNP Scientific Program Committee, added that there may be a need to revisit the difficulty of different types of cognitive tasks used in studies assessing the abilities of cognitive enhancing drugs and to “rewind conventional wisdom” around them.

Also commenting, Andrew Westbrook, PhD, of the department of cognitive linguistics and psychological sciences, Brown University, Providence, R.I., said the results seem “reasonable” and are “consistent with my own perspective.”

However, he told this news organization, “some caveats are warranted,” not least that the context of the task can have an impact on the results it obtains.

“We have hypothesized that pharmacologically-enhanced striatal dopamine signaling can boost a kind of cognitive impulsivity, leading to errors and diminished performance, especially for people who already have high striatal dopamine functioning.”

He added that this impulsivity can also lead to errors “in situations where there are highly likely actions, thoughts, or behaviors” in a task, “which they would have to override to be successful” in performing it.

Dr. Westbrook gave the example of the “Stroop task where you are presented with words presented in some color ink and your job is to name the color of the ink but not read the word.”

If the word “green,” for example, was presented in green ink, “you may have no trouble naming the ink color,” but if it was presented in red ink “then you may impulsively read the word, because that is what we normally do with words. 

“Overriding this kind of habitual action can be particularly slippery business when striatal dopamine signaling is pharmacologically enhanced,” Dr. Westbrook said.

No funding for the study was reported. Dr. Coghill reported relationships with Medice, Novartis, Servier, Takeda/Shire Cambridge University Press, and Oxford University Press.

A version of this article first appeared on Medscape.com.

VIENNA – Prescription drugs designed to boost cognition in neurodevelopmental disorders do not increase overall cognitive performance in healthy individuals – and may even reduce productivity, new research suggests.

In a randomized controlled trial, 40 healthy adults were given the attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) treatments methylphenidate or dexamphetamine or the wakefulness-promoting drug modafinil vs. placebo.

While receiving the so-called “smart drugs,” participants spent more time and made more moves more quickly while solving each problem on a complex cognitive task than when given the placebo. But with no significant improvement in overall performance, all drugs were associated with a significant reduction in efficiency.

The findings “reinforce the idea that, while the drugs administered were motivational, the resulting increase in effort came at a cost in the loss of productivity,” said study presenter David Coghill, MD, PhD, chair of developmental mental health, the University of Melbourne.

This was especially true for individuals who scored high when receiving placebo, “who ended up producing below average productivity when on the drugs,” he noted.

“Overall, these drugs don’t increase the performance. Instead, they cause a regression to the mean, and appear to have a more negative effect on those who performed best at baseline,” Dr. Coghill added.

He presented the findings at the 35th European College of Neuropsychopharmacology (ECNP) Congress.
 

Past evidence ambiguous

Dr. Coghill noted that prescription-only stimulant drugs are increasingly used by employees and students as “smart drugs” to enhance workplace or academic productivity.

He conducted the study with colleagues from the department of economics at his institution, because of “their interest in people using cognitive enhancers within the financial industry, in the hope that that would increase their productivity in what is a very competitive industry on the floor of the trading rooms.”

However, while “there’s a subjective belief” that these drugs are effective as cognitive enhancers, the evidence to actually demonstrate that in healthy individuals “is, at best, ambiguous,” he told meeting attendees.

Improvements in cognitive capacities, such as working memory and improved planning, are most evident in clinical populations such as those with ADHD, which could be due to a “ceiling effect” of the cognitive tasks in healthy individuals, Dr. Coghill noted.

To investigate further, the researchers conducted a randomized, double-blinded trial of standard adult doses of methylphenidate (30 mg), dexamphetamine (15 mg), and modafinil (200 mg) vs. placebo. The healthy participants (n = 40), all of whom were aged 18-35 years, crossed to each of the other treatment groups over the course of four intervention sessions.

All were asked to solve eight instances of the knapsack task, the aim of which is to place theoretical objects in a knapsack to achieve the maximum value within a certain weight limit.

“This looks very simple but as the number of items increases, it becomes incredibly complex to compute, and actually is not computable using standard approaches. You have to deal with trial and error,” Dr. Coghill said.

The participants also completed several CANTAB cognitive tasks.

‘Surprising’ findings

Results showed that, overall, the drugs did not have a significant effect on task performance (slope = –0.16; P = .011).

Moreover, the drugs, both individually and collectively, had a significant negative effect on the value attained during any one attempt at the knapsack task (slope = –0.003; P = .02), an effect that extended “across the whole range” of task complexity, Dr. Coghill reported.

He went on to show that “participants actually looked as if they were working harder” when they took the three active drugs than when they were given a placebo. They also “spent more time solving each problem,” he added.

When taking the active drugs, participants made more moves during each task than when taking placebo, and made their moves more quickly.

“So these medications increased motivation,” Dr. Coghill said. “If you were sitting [and] watching this person, you would think that they were working harder.”

Yet their productivity, defined as the average gain in value per move on the knapsack task, was lower. Regression analysis identified a “significant and sizable drop in productivity” vs. placebo, Dr. Coghill noted.

This was the case for methylphenidate (P < .001), dexamphetamine (P < .001), and modafinil (P < .05), “whether you looked at the mean or median performance,” he said.

“Breaking it down a little bit more, when you looked at the individual participant level, you find substantial heterogeneity across participants,” noted Dr. Coghill.

“More than that, we found a significant negative correlation between productivity under methylphenidate compared to productivity under placebo, and this suggests a regression to the mean,” with participants who performed better under placebo performing worse with methylphenidate, he explained.

While the relationship was “exactly the same with modafinil,” it was not found with dexamphetamine, with a strong negative correlation between the productivity effects between dexamphetamine and methylphenidate (slope = –0.29; P < .0001).

“This is surprising because we assume that methylphenidate and dexamphetamine are working in very similar ways,” Dr. Coghill said.
 

Time to rethink, rewind?

Commenting for this article, session chair John F. Cryan, PhD, department of anatomy and neuroscience, University College Cork, Ireland, said that, based on the current data, “we might need to rethink [how] ‘smart’ psychopharmacological agents are.”

Dr. Cryan, chair of the ECNP Scientific Program Committee, added that there may be a need to revisit the difficulty of different types of cognitive tasks used in studies assessing the abilities of cognitive enhancing drugs and to “rewind conventional wisdom” around them.

Also commenting, Andrew Westbrook, PhD, of the department of cognitive linguistics and psychological sciences, Brown University, Providence, R.I., said the results seem “reasonable” and are “consistent with my own perspective.”

However, he told this news organization, “some caveats are warranted,” not least that the context of the task can have an impact on the results it obtains.

“We have hypothesized that pharmacologically-enhanced striatal dopamine signaling can boost a kind of cognitive impulsivity, leading to errors and diminished performance, especially for people who already have high striatal dopamine functioning.”

He added that this impulsivity can also lead to errors “in situations where there are highly likely actions, thoughts, or behaviors” in a task, “which they would have to override to be successful” in performing it.

Dr. Westbrook gave the example of the “Stroop task where you are presented with words presented in some color ink and your job is to name the color of the ink but not read the word.”

If the word “green,” for example, was presented in green ink, “you may have no trouble naming the ink color,” but if it was presented in red ink “then you may impulsively read the word, because that is what we normally do with words. 

“Overriding this kind of habitual action can be particularly slippery business when striatal dopamine signaling is pharmacologically enhanced,” Dr. Westbrook said.

No funding for the study was reported. Dr. Coghill reported relationships with Medice, Novartis, Servier, Takeda/Shire Cambridge University Press, and Oxford University Press.

A version of this article first appeared on Medscape.com.

VIENNA – Prescription drugs designed to boost cognition in neurodevelopmental disorders do not increase overall cognitive performance in healthy individuals – and may even reduce productivity, new research suggests.

In a randomized controlled trial, 40 healthy adults were given the attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) treatments methylphenidate or dexamphetamine or the wakefulness-promoting drug modafinil vs. placebo.

While receiving the so-called “smart drugs,” participants spent more time and made more moves more quickly while solving each problem on a complex cognitive task than when given the placebo. But with no significant improvement in overall performance, all drugs were associated with a significant reduction in efficiency.

The findings “reinforce the idea that, while the drugs administered were motivational, the resulting increase in effort came at a cost in the loss of productivity,” said study presenter David Coghill, MD, PhD, chair of developmental mental health, the University of Melbourne.

This was especially true for individuals who scored high when receiving placebo, “who ended up producing below average productivity when on the drugs,” he noted.

“Overall, these drugs don’t increase the performance. Instead, they cause a regression to the mean, and appear to have a more negative effect on those who performed best at baseline,” Dr. Coghill added.

He presented the findings at the 35th European College of Neuropsychopharmacology (ECNP) Congress.
 

Past evidence ambiguous

Dr. Coghill noted that prescription-only stimulant drugs are increasingly used by employees and students as “smart drugs” to enhance workplace or academic productivity.

He conducted the study with colleagues from the department of economics at his institution, because of “their interest in people using cognitive enhancers within the financial industry, in the hope that that would increase their productivity in what is a very competitive industry on the floor of the trading rooms.”

However, while “there’s a subjective belief” that these drugs are effective as cognitive enhancers, the evidence to actually demonstrate that in healthy individuals “is, at best, ambiguous,” he told meeting attendees.

Improvements in cognitive capacities, such as working memory and improved planning, are most evident in clinical populations such as those with ADHD, which could be due to a “ceiling effect” of the cognitive tasks in healthy individuals, Dr. Coghill noted.

To investigate further, the researchers conducted a randomized, double-blinded trial of standard adult doses of methylphenidate (30 mg), dexamphetamine (15 mg), and modafinil (200 mg) vs. placebo. The healthy participants (n = 40), all of whom were aged 18-35 years, crossed to each of the other treatment groups over the course of four intervention sessions.

All were asked to solve eight instances of the knapsack task, the aim of which is to place theoretical objects in a knapsack to achieve the maximum value within a certain weight limit.

“This looks very simple but as the number of items increases, it becomes incredibly complex to compute, and actually is not computable using standard approaches. You have to deal with trial and error,” Dr. Coghill said.

The participants also completed several CANTAB cognitive tasks.

‘Surprising’ findings

Results showed that, overall, the drugs did not have a significant effect on task performance (slope = –0.16; P = .011).

Moreover, the drugs, both individually and collectively, had a significant negative effect on the value attained during any one attempt at the knapsack task (slope = –0.003; P = .02), an effect that extended “across the whole range” of task complexity, Dr. Coghill reported.

He went on to show that “participants actually looked as if they were working harder” when they took the three active drugs than when they were given a placebo. They also “spent more time solving each problem,” he added.

When taking the active drugs, participants made more moves during each task than when taking placebo, and made their moves more quickly.

“So these medications increased motivation,” Dr. Coghill said. “If you were sitting [and] watching this person, you would think that they were working harder.”

Yet their productivity, defined as the average gain in value per move on the knapsack task, was lower. Regression analysis identified a “significant and sizable drop in productivity” vs. placebo, Dr. Coghill noted.

This was the case for methylphenidate (P < .001), dexamphetamine (P < .001), and modafinil (P < .05), “whether you looked at the mean or median performance,” he said.

“Breaking it down a little bit more, when you looked at the individual participant level, you find substantial heterogeneity across participants,” noted Dr. Coghill.

“More than that, we found a significant negative correlation between productivity under methylphenidate compared to productivity under placebo, and this suggests a regression to the mean,” with participants who performed better under placebo performing worse with methylphenidate, he explained.

While the relationship was “exactly the same with modafinil,” it was not found with dexamphetamine, with a strong negative correlation between the productivity effects between dexamphetamine and methylphenidate (slope = –0.29; P < .0001).

“This is surprising because we assume that methylphenidate and dexamphetamine are working in very similar ways,” Dr. Coghill said.
 

Time to rethink, rewind?

Commenting for this article, session chair John F. Cryan, PhD, department of anatomy and neuroscience, University College Cork, Ireland, said that, based on the current data, “we might need to rethink [how] ‘smart’ psychopharmacological agents are.”

Dr. Cryan, chair of the ECNP Scientific Program Committee, added that there may be a need to revisit the difficulty of different types of cognitive tasks used in studies assessing the abilities of cognitive enhancing drugs and to “rewind conventional wisdom” around them.

Also commenting, Andrew Westbrook, PhD, of the department of cognitive linguistics and psychological sciences, Brown University, Providence, R.I., said the results seem “reasonable” and are “consistent with my own perspective.”

However, he told this news organization, “some caveats are warranted,” not least that the context of the task can have an impact on the results it obtains.

“We have hypothesized that pharmacologically-enhanced striatal dopamine signaling can boost a kind of cognitive impulsivity, leading to errors and diminished performance, especially for people who already have high striatal dopamine functioning.”

He added that this impulsivity can also lead to errors “in situations where there are highly likely actions, thoughts, or behaviors” in a task, “which they would have to override to be successful” in performing it.

Dr. Westbrook gave the example of the “Stroop task where you are presented with words presented in some color ink and your job is to name the color of the ink but not read the word.”

If the word “green,” for example, was presented in green ink, “you may have no trouble naming the ink color,” but if it was presented in red ink “then you may impulsively read the word, because that is what we normally do with words. 

“Overriding this kind of habitual action can be particularly slippery business when striatal dopamine signaling is pharmacologically enhanced,” Dr. Westbrook said.

No funding for the study was reported. Dr. Coghill reported relationships with Medice, Novartis, Servier, Takeda/Shire Cambridge University Press, and Oxford University Press.

A version of this article first appeared on Medscape.com.

Teens diagnosed with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in childhood reported similar overall quality of life compared with teens with ADHD behaviors but no childhood diagnosis, a new study finds.

The results align with findings from other studies suggesting lower quality of life (QOL) in teens with ADHD, but the current study is the first known to focus on the association between ADHD diagnosis itself vs. ADHD symptoms, and QOL, the researchers wrote. The findings show that at least some of the reduced QOL is associated with the diagnosis itself, they explained.

The researchers directly compared 393 teens with a childhood ADHD diagnosis to 393 matched teens with no ADHD diagnosis but who had hyperactive/inattentive behaviors.

The researchers reviewed self-reports from individuals who were enrolled in a population-based prospective study in Australia. The primary outcome was quality of life at age 14-15, which was measured with Child Health Utility 9D (CHU9D), a validated quality of life measure.
 

Study results

Overall, teens with and without an ADHD diagnosis reported similar levels of overall quality of life; the mean difference in the primary outcome CHU9D score was –0.03 (P = .10). Teens with and without an ADHD diagnosis also showed similar scores on measures of general health, happiness, and peer trust, the researchers noted.

The researchers also reviewed eight other prespecified, self-reported measures: academic self-concept, global health, negative social behaviors, overall happiness, peer trust, psychological sense of school membership, self-efficacy, and self-harm.

Teens diagnosed with ADHD in childhood were more than twice as likely to report self-harm (odds ratio 2.53, P less than .001) and displayed significantly more negative social behaviors (mean difference 1.56, P = .002), compared with teens without an ADHD diagnosis.

Teens diagnosed with ADHD in childhood also scored significantly worse on measures of sense of school membership (mean difference −2.58, P less than .001), academic self-concept (mean difference, −0.14; P = .02), and self-efficacy (mean difference −0.20; P = .007), compared to teens without an ADHD diagnosis.

The average age at ADHD diagnosis was 10 years, and 72% of the ADHD-diagnosed group were boys. No significant differences were noted for levels of hyperactive/inattentive behaviors and between girls and boys, but girls overall and children with the highest levels of hyperactive and inattentive behaviors reported generally worse outcomes, regardless of ADHD diagnosis, the researchers noted.
 

Don’t rush to diagnosis

Although rates of ADHD diagnosis in children continue to rise, the prevalence of hyperactivity and inattentive behaviors appears stable, which suggests a problem with diagnosis, senior author Alexandra Barratt, MBBS, MPH, PhD, professor of public health at the University of Sydney, Australia, said in an interview.

“Our hypothesis was that children who had been diagnosed, and we assume treated for, ADHD would have better outcomes, compared to children matched for hyperactivity/inattention behaviors who were left undiagnosed and untreated, but we were surprised to find that, at best, outcomes were unchanged, and for some outcomes, worse,” Dr. Barratt said.

“Our study provides evidence that diagnosing ADHD may lead, inadvertently, to long-term harms, particularly for children with mild or borderline hyperactivity and inattention behaviors,” she emphasized.

“We can’t say from this study what to do instead, but previously one of our team has looked at stepped diagnosis as an alternative option for children with mild or borderline hyperactivity and inattention behaviors,” she said.

The stepped diagnosis includes such actions as gathering behavior data from multiple sources, and conducting a period of watchful waiting without presumption of a diagnosis or active treatment.

Given the findings of the new study, “I would ask that health professionals considering a child who may have ADHD be aware that there is an evidence gap around the long-term impact of an ADHD diagnosis on children, and to proceed cautiously,” Dr. Barratt said. As for additional research, independent, high-quality, randomized controlled trials of ADHD diagnosis in children with mild or borderline hyperactivity/inattention behaviors are urgently needed, with long-term, patient-centered outcomes including quality of life she noted.

ADHD screening needs improvement

The incidence and prevalence of ADHD is on the rise, but much of the perceived increase in ADHD may be due to overdiagnosis, “and a lack of robust thorough psychological testing as standard of care for diagnosis,” Peter Loper, MD, a pediatrician and psychiatrist at the University of South Carolina, Columbia, said in an interview.

The current study “reinforces the necessity of consistent screening for comorbid mental health problems, and specifically for thoughts of self-harm, in those children who are diagnosed with ADHD,” he said.

Expressing his lack of astonishment about the study findings, Dr. Loper said: “Previous data indicates that while following initial diagnosis of a medical or mental health problem, patients may experience a sense of relief; however, this is followed shortly thereafter by feelings of insufficiency or anxiety related to their specific diagnosis.”

“As it stands now, ADHD is often diagnosed in children and adolescents using basic screening questionnaires,” said Dr. Loper. “The findings of this study may bolster calls for more robust and thorough psychological testing for supporting the diagnosis of ADHD,” he said.

Individuals diagnosed with ADHD can sometimes have difficulty with social skills and relating to others, said Dr. Loper. “They may be more prone to internalize their poor school performance as due to being ‘stupid’ or ‘dumb,’ ” he said. Children and teens with ADHD should, whenever possible, be involved in extracurricular activities that support the development of social skills, he said. Parents’ praise of the process/effort, rather than focusing only on outcomes such as grades, is very important for the esteem of children and teens with ADHD, he added.

The study limitations included the use of observational data vs. data from randomized trials, and the potential for confounding factors in propensity scoring, the researchers wrote. Additional limitations include the size of the sample, which may have been too small to detect additional differences between diagnosed teens and matched controls, they noted.

“As the study authors appropriately cite, a large, randomized trial would be very helpful in supporting additional understanding of this issue,” Dr. Loper added.

The study was supported by the National Health and Medical Research Council The researchers and Dr. Loper had no financial conflicts to disclose.

Teens diagnosed with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in childhood reported similar overall quality of life compared with teens with ADHD behaviors but no childhood diagnosis, a new study finds.

The results align with findings from other studies suggesting lower quality of life (QOL) in teens with ADHD, but the current study is the first known to focus on the association between ADHD diagnosis itself vs. ADHD symptoms, and QOL, the researchers wrote. The findings show that at least some of the reduced QOL is associated with the diagnosis itself, they explained.

The researchers directly compared 393 teens with a childhood ADHD diagnosis to 393 matched teens with no ADHD diagnosis but who had hyperactive/inattentive behaviors.

The researchers reviewed self-reports from individuals who were enrolled in a population-based prospective study in Australia. The primary outcome was quality of life at age 14-15, which was measured with Child Health Utility 9D (CHU9D), a validated quality of life measure.
 

Study results

Overall, teens with and without an ADHD diagnosis reported similar levels of overall quality of life; the mean difference in the primary outcome CHU9D score was –0.03 (P = .10). Teens with and without an ADHD diagnosis also showed similar scores on measures of general health, happiness, and peer trust, the researchers noted.

The researchers also reviewed eight other prespecified, self-reported measures: academic self-concept, global health, negative social behaviors, overall happiness, peer trust, psychological sense of school membership, self-efficacy, and self-harm.

Teens diagnosed with ADHD in childhood were more than twice as likely to report self-harm (odds ratio 2.53, P less than .001) and displayed significantly more negative social behaviors (mean difference 1.56, P = .002), compared with teens without an ADHD diagnosis.

Teens diagnosed with ADHD in childhood also scored significantly worse on measures of sense of school membership (mean difference −2.58, P less than .001), academic self-concept (mean difference, −0.14; P = .02), and self-efficacy (mean difference −0.20; P = .007), compared to teens without an ADHD diagnosis.

The average age at ADHD diagnosis was 10 years, and 72% of the ADHD-diagnosed group were boys. No significant differences were noted for levels of hyperactive/inattentive behaviors and between girls and boys, but girls overall and children with the highest levels of hyperactive and inattentive behaviors reported generally worse outcomes, regardless of ADHD diagnosis, the researchers noted.
 

Don’t rush to diagnosis

Although rates of ADHD diagnosis in children continue to rise, the prevalence of hyperactivity and inattentive behaviors appears stable, which suggests a problem with diagnosis, senior author Alexandra Barratt, MBBS, MPH, PhD, professor of public health at the University of Sydney, Australia, said in an interview.

“Our hypothesis was that children who had been diagnosed, and we assume treated for, ADHD would have better outcomes, compared to children matched for hyperactivity/inattention behaviors who were left undiagnosed and untreated, but we were surprised to find that, at best, outcomes were unchanged, and for some outcomes, worse,” Dr. Barratt said.

“Our study provides evidence that diagnosing ADHD may lead, inadvertently, to long-term harms, particularly for children with mild or borderline hyperactivity and inattention behaviors,” she emphasized.

“We can’t say from this study what to do instead, but previously one of our team has looked at stepped diagnosis as an alternative option for children with mild or borderline hyperactivity and inattention behaviors,” she said.

The stepped diagnosis includes such actions as gathering behavior data from multiple sources, and conducting a period of watchful waiting without presumption of a diagnosis or active treatment.

Given the findings of the new study, “I would ask that health professionals considering a child who may have ADHD be aware that there is an evidence gap around the long-term impact of an ADHD diagnosis on children, and to proceed cautiously,” Dr. Barratt said. As for additional research, independent, high-quality, randomized controlled trials of ADHD diagnosis in children with mild or borderline hyperactivity/inattention behaviors are urgently needed, with long-term, patient-centered outcomes including quality of life she noted.

ADHD screening needs improvement

The incidence and prevalence of ADHD is on the rise, but much of the perceived increase in ADHD may be due to overdiagnosis, “and a lack of robust thorough psychological testing as standard of care for diagnosis,” Peter Loper, MD, a pediatrician and psychiatrist at the University of South Carolina, Columbia, said in an interview.

The current study “reinforces the necessity of consistent screening for comorbid mental health problems, and specifically for thoughts of self-harm, in those children who are diagnosed with ADHD,” he said.

Expressing his lack of astonishment about the study findings, Dr. Loper said: “Previous data indicates that while following initial diagnosis of a medical or mental health problem, patients may experience a sense of relief; however, this is followed shortly thereafter by feelings of insufficiency or anxiety related to their specific diagnosis.”

“As it stands now, ADHD is often diagnosed in children and adolescents using basic screening questionnaires,” said Dr. Loper. “The findings of this study may bolster calls for more robust and thorough psychological testing for supporting the diagnosis of ADHD,” he said.

Individuals diagnosed with ADHD can sometimes have difficulty with social skills and relating to others, said Dr. Loper. “They may be more prone to internalize their poor school performance as due to being ‘stupid’ or ‘dumb,’ ” he said. Children and teens with ADHD should, whenever possible, be involved in extracurricular activities that support the development of social skills, he said. Parents’ praise of the process/effort, rather than focusing only on outcomes such as grades, is very important for the esteem of children and teens with ADHD, he added.

The study limitations included the use of observational data vs. data from randomized trials, and the potential for confounding factors in propensity scoring, the researchers wrote. Additional limitations include the size of the sample, which may have been too small to detect additional differences between diagnosed teens and matched controls, they noted.

“As the study authors appropriately cite, a large, randomized trial would be very helpful in supporting additional understanding of this issue,” Dr. Loper added.

The study was supported by the National Health and Medical Research Council The researchers and Dr. Loper had no financial conflicts to disclose.

Teens diagnosed with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in childhood reported similar overall quality of life compared with teens with ADHD behaviors but no childhood diagnosis, a new study finds.

The results align with findings from other studies suggesting lower quality of life (QOL) in teens with ADHD, but the current study is the first known to focus on the association between ADHD diagnosis itself vs. ADHD symptoms, and QOL, the researchers wrote. The findings show that at least some of the reduced QOL is associated with the diagnosis itself, they explained.

The researchers directly compared 393 teens with a childhood ADHD diagnosis to 393 matched teens with no ADHD diagnosis but who had hyperactive/inattentive behaviors.

The researchers reviewed self-reports from individuals who were enrolled in a population-based prospective study in Australia. The primary outcome was quality of life at age 14-15, which was measured with Child Health Utility 9D (CHU9D), a validated quality of life measure.
 

Study results

Overall, teens with and without an ADHD diagnosis reported similar levels of overall quality of life; the mean difference in the primary outcome CHU9D score was –0.03 (P = .10). Teens with and without an ADHD diagnosis also showed similar scores on measures of general health, happiness, and peer trust, the researchers noted.

The researchers also reviewed eight other prespecified, self-reported measures: academic self-concept, global health, negative social behaviors, overall happiness, peer trust, psychological sense of school membership, self-efficacy, and self-harm.

Teens diagnosed with ADHD in childhood were more than twice as likely to report self-harm (odds ratio 2.53, P less than .001) and displayed significantly more negative social behaviors (mean difference 1.56, P = .002), compared with teens without an ADHD diagnosis.

Teens diagnosed with ADHD in childhood also scored significantly worse on measures of sense of school membership (mean difference −2.58, P less than .001), academic self-concept (mean difference, −0.14; P = .02), and self-efficacy (mean difference −0.20; P = .007), compared to teens without an ADHD diagnosis.

The average age at ADHD diagnosis was 10 years, and 72% of the ADHD-diagnosed group were boys. No significant differences were noted for levels of hyperactive/inattentive behaviors and between girls and boys, but girls overall and children with the highest levels of hyperactive and inattentive behaviors reported generally worse outcomes, regardless of ADHD diagnosis, the researchers noted.
 

Don’t rush to diagnosis

Although rates of ADHD diagnosis in children continue to rise, the prevalence of hyperactivity and inattentive behaviors appears stable, which suggests a problem with diagnosis, senior author Alexandra Barratt, MBBS, MPH, PhD, professor of public health at the University of Sydney, Australia, said in an interview.

“Our hypothesis was that children who had been diagnosed, and we assume treated for, ADHD would have better outcomes, compared to children matched for hyperactivity/inattention behaviors who were left undiagnosed and untreated, but we were surprised to find that, at best, outcomes were unchanged, and for some outcomes, worse,” Dr. Barratt said.

“Our study provides evidence that diagnosing ADHD may lead, inadvertently, to long-term harms, particularly for children with mild or borderline hyperactivity and inattention behaviors,” she emphasized.

“We can’t say from this study what to do instead, but previously one of our team has looked at stepped diagnosis as an alternative option for children with mild or borderline hyperactivity and inattention behaviors,” she said.

The stepped diagnosis includes such actions as gathering behavior data from multiple sources, and conducting a period of watchful waiting without presumption of a diagnosis or active treatment.

Given the findings of the new study, “I would ask that health professionals considering a child who may have ADHD be aware that there is an evidence gap around the long-term impact of an ADHD diagnosis on children, and to proceed cautiously,” Dr. Barratt said. As for additional research, independent, high-quality, randomized controlled trials of ADHD diagnosis in children with mild or borderline hyperactivity/inattention behaviors are urgently needed, with long-term, patient-centered outcomes including quality of life she noted.

ADHD screening needs improvement

The incidence and prevalence of ADHD is on the rise, but much of the perceived increase in ADHD may be due to overdiagnosis, “and a lack of robust thorough psychological testing as standard of care for diagnosis,” Peter Loper, MD, a pediatrician and psychiatrist at the University of South Carolina, Columbia, said in an interview.

The current study “reinforces the necessity of consistent screening for comorbid mental health problems, and specifically for thoughts of self-harm, in those children who are diagnosed with ADHD,” he said.

Expressing his lack of astonishment about the study findings, Dr. Loper said: “Previous data indicates that while following initial diagnosis of a medical or mental health problem, patients may experience a sense of relief; however, this is followed shortly thereafter by feelings of insufficiency or anxiety related to their specific diagnosis.”

“As it stands now, ADHD is often diagnosed in children and adolescents using basic screening questionnaires,” said Dr. Loper. “The findings of this study may bolster calls for more robust and thorough psychological testing for supporting the diagnosis of ADHD,” he said.

Individuals diagnosed with ADHD can sometimes have difficulty with social skills and relating to others, said Dr. Loper. “They may be more prone to internalize their poor school performance as due to being ‘stupid’ or ‘dumb,’ ” he said. Children and teens with ADHD should, whenever possible, be involved in extracurricular activities that support the development of social skills, he said. Parents’ praise of the process/effort, rather than focusing only on outcomes such as grades, is very important for the esteem of children and teens with ADHD, he added.

The study limitations included the use of observational data vs. data from randomized trials, and the potential for confounding factors in propensity scoring, the researchers wrote. Additional limitations include the size of the sample, which may have been too small to detect additional differences between diagnosed teens and matched controls, they noted.

“As the study authors appropriately cite, a large, randomized trial would be very helpful in supporting additional understanding of this issue,” Dr. Loper added.

The study was supported by the National Health and Medical Research Council The researchers and Dr. Loper had no financial conflicts to disclose.

The U.S. Food and Drug Administration has confirmed a nationwide shortage of the immediate release formulation of amphetamine mixed salts (Adderall, Adderall IR), which are approved for treating attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and narcolepsy.

The FDA announcement follows weeks of reports of a shortage of the drug by pharmacy chains and Adderall users.

The agency said it is in “frequent” contact with all manufacturers of Adderall – and reported that one of those companies, Teva, is experiencing ongoing intermittent manufacturing delays.

Other manufacturers continue to produce amphetamine mixed salts, but there is not enough supply to continue to meet U.S. market demand through those producers, the FDA noted.

“Until supply is restored, there are alternative therapies, including the extended-release version of amphetamine mixed salts, available to health care professionals and their patients for amphetamine mixed salts’ approved indications,” the agency said.

Patients should work with their health care provider to determine their best treatment option, it added.

The organization is continuing to monitor the supply of Adderall and to help manufacturers resolve the shortage.

Its Drug Shortage webpage has additional information about the situation and is updated regularly.

“We continue to use all the tools we have available to help keep supply available for patients and will provide public updates regarding the Adderall shortage,” the FDA said.

A version of this article first appeared on Medscape.com.

The U.S. Food and Drug Administration has confirmed a nationwide shortage of the immediate release formulation of amphetamine mixed salts (Adderall, Adderall IR), which are approved for treating attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and narcolepsy.

The FDA announcement follows weeks of reports of a shortage of the drug by pharmacy chains and Adderall users.

The agency said it is in “frequent” contact with all manufacturers of Adderall – and reported that one of those companies, Teva, is experiencing ongoing intermittent manufacturing delays.

Other manufacturers continue to produce amphetamine mixed salts, but there is not enough supply to continue to meet U.S. market demand through those producers, the FDA noted.

“Until supply is restored, there are alternative therapies, including the extended-release version of amphetamine mixed salts, available to health care professionals and their patients for amphetamine mixed salts’ approved indications,” the agency said.

Patients should work with their health care provider to determine their best treatment option, it added.

The organization is continuing to monitor the supply of Adderall and to help manufacturers resolve the shortage.

Its Drug Shortage webpage has additional information about the situation and is updated regularly.

“We continue to use all the tools we have available to help keep supply available for patients and will provide public updates regarding the Adderall shortage,” the FDA said.

A version of this article first appeared on Medscape.com.

The U.S. Food and Drug Administration has confirmed a nationwide shortage of the immediate release formulation of amphetamine mixed salts (Adderall, Adderall IR), which are approved for treating attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and narcolepsy.

The FDA announcement follows weeks of reports of a shortage of the drug by pharmacy chains and Adderall users.

The agency said it is in “frequent” contact with all manufacturers of Adderall – and reported that one of those companies, Teva, is experiencing ongoing intermittent manufacturing delays.

Other manufacturers continue to produce amphetamine mixed salts, but there is not enough supply to continue to meet U.S. market demand through those producers, the FDA noted.

“Until supply is restored, there are alternative therapies, including the extended-release version of amphetamine mixed salts, available to health care professionals and their patients for amphetamine mixed salts’ approved indications,” the agency said.

Patients should work with their health care provider to determine their best treatment option, it added.

The organization is continuing to monitor the supply of Adderall and to help manufacturers resolve the shortage.

Its Drug Shortage webpage has additional information about the situation and is updated regularly.

“We continue to use all the tools we have available to help keep supply available for patients and will provide public updates regarding the Adderall shortage,” the FDA said.

A version of this article first appeared on Medscape.com.