Diversity in Medicine

HONOLULU – Old habits die hard, especially when it comes to pulmonary function testing in a diverse population of patients with interstitial lung disease (ILD).

Specifically, pulmonary care clinicians may be habitually relying on outdated and inaccurate race-specific reference values when evaluating respiratory impairment in persons of African and Hispanic/Latino ancestry, which can result in underrecognition, underdiagnosis, and undertreatment, reported Ayodeji Adegunsoye, MD, from the University of Chicago, and colleagues.

“Our results make a compelling case for re-evaluating the use of race as a physiological variable, and highlight the need to offer equitable and optimal care for all patients, regardless of their race or ethnicity,” Dr. Adegunsoye said in an oral abstract session at the annual meeting of the American College of Chest Physicians (CHEST).
 

Flawed assumptions

In an interview, Dr. Adegunsoye noted that race-specific notions, such as the automatic assumption that Black people have less lung capacity than White people, are baked into clinical practice and passed on as clinical wisdom from one generation of clinicians to the next.

Pulmonary function reference values that are used to make a diagnosis of idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis in Black or Hispanic/Latino patients “appear flawed when we use race-specific values. And beyond the diagnosis, it also appears to impact eligibility for key interventional strategies for managing the disease itself,” he said.

The use of race-specific equations can falsely inflate percent-predicted pulmonary function values in non-White patients, and make it seem as if a patient has normal lung function when in fact he may be have impaired function.

For example, using race-based reference values a Black patient and a White patient may appear to have the same absolute forced vital capacity readings, but different FVC percent predicted (FVCpp), which can mean a missed diagnosis.

Investigators who studied the association between self-identified race and visually identified emphysema among 2,674 participants in the Coronary Artery Risk Development in Young Adults study found that using standard equations to adjust for racial differences in lung-function measures appeared to miss emphysema in a significant proportion of Black patients.
 

PF registry study

In the current study, to see whether the use of race-neutral equations for evaluating FVCpp could change access to health care in patients with ILD, Dr. Adegunsoye and colleagues used both race-specific and race-neutral equations to calculate FVCpp values among separate cohorts of Black, Hispanic/Latino, and White patients enrolled in the Pulmonary Fibrosis Foundation Patient Registry who had pulmonary functions test within about 90 days of enrollment.

The race-specific equations used to calculate FVCpp was that published in 1999 by Hankinson and colleagues in American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine. The race-neutral Global Lung Function Initiative (GLI) equations by Bowerman and colleagues were developed in 2022 and published in March 2023 in the same journal.

The investigators defined access to care as enrollment in ILD clinical trials for patients with FVCpp greater than 45% but less than 90%, and US payer access to antifibrotic therapy for patients with FVCpp of greater than 55% but less than 82%.

They found that 22% of Black patients were misclassified in their eligibility for clinical trials in each of two scenarios – those who would be excluded from trials using the 1999 criteria but included using the 2022 criteria, and vice versa, that is included with 1999 criteria but excluded by the 2022 GLI criteria. In contrast, 14% of Hispanic Latino patients and 12% of White patients were misclassified.

Using the 1999 criteria to exclude patients because their values were ostensibly higher than the upper cutoff meant that 10.3% of Black patients who might benefit would be ineligible for clinical trial, compared with 0% of Hispanic/Latinos and 0.1% of Whites.

Similarly, 11.5% of Black patients but no Hispanic/Latino or White patients would be considered eligible for clinical trials using the old criteria but ineligible under the new criteria.

Regarding antifibrotic therapy eligibility, the respective misclassification rates were 21%, 17%, and 19%.­

“Our study showed that use of race-specific equations may confound lung function tests, potentially leading to misclassification, delayed diagnosis, and inadequate treatment provision. While our study suggests potential disparities in access to health care for patients with interstitial lung disease facilitated by race-specific equations, further research is required to fully comprehend the implications,” the investigators wrote.
 

ATS statement

In an interview, Juan Wisnievsky, MD, DrPh, from Mount Sinai Medical Center, New York, who also chairs the Health Equity and Diversity Committee for the American Thoracic Society, pointed to a recent ATS statement he coauthored citing evidence for replacing race and ethnicity-specific equations with race-neutral average reference equations.

“This use of race and ethnicity may contribute to health disparities by norming differences in pulmonary function. In the United States and globally, race serves as a social construct that is based on appearance and reflects social values, structures, and practices. Classification of people into racial and ethnic groups differs geographically and temporally. These considerations challenge the notion that racial and ethnic categories have biological meaning and question the use of race in PFT interpretation,” the statement authors wrote.

“There is some agreement that race-based equations shouldn’t be used, but all the potential consequences of doing that and which equations would be the best ones to use to replace them is a bit unclear,” Dr. Wisnievsky said.

He was not involved in the study by Dr. Adegunsoye and colleagues.

Data used in the study were derived from research sponsored by F. Hoffman–La Roche and Genentech. Dr. Adegunsoye disclosed consultancy fees from AbbVie, Inogen, F. Hoffman–La Roche, Medscape, and PatientMpower; speaking/advisory fees from Boehringer Ingelheim; and grants/award from the CHEST Foundation, Pulmonary Fibrosis Foundation, and National Institutes of Health. Dr. Wisnievsky had no relevant disclosures.

HONOLULU – Old habits die hard, especially when it comes to pulmonary function testing in a diverse population of patients with interstitial lung disease (ILD).

Specifically, pulmonary care clinicians may be habitually relying on outdated and inaccurate race-specific reference values when evaluating respiratory impairment in persons of African and Hispanic/Latino ancestry, which can result in underrecognition, underdiagnosis, and undertreatment, reported Ayodeji Adegunsoye, MD, from the University of Chicago, and colleagues.

“Our results make a compelling case for re-evaluating the use of race as a physiological variable, and highlight the need to offer equitable and optimal care for all patients, regardless of their race or ethnicity,” Dr. Adegunsoye said in an oral abstract session at the annual meeting of the American College of Chest Physicians (CHEST).
 

Flawed assumptions

In an interview, Dr. Adegunsoye noted that race-specific notions, such as the automatic assumption that Black people have less lung capacity than White people, are baked into clinical practice and passed on as clinical wisdom from one generation of clinicians to the next.

Pulmonary function reference values that are used to make a diagnosis of idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis in Black or Hispanic/Latino patients “appear flawed when we use race-specific values. And beyond the diagnosis, it also appears to impact eligibility for key interventional strategies for managing the disease itself,” he said.

The use of race-specific equations can falsely inflate percent-predicted pulmonary function values in non-White patients, and make it seem as if a patient has normal lung function when in fact he may be have impaired function.

For example, using race-based reference values a Black patient and a White patient may appear to have the same absolute forced vital capacity readings, but different FVC percent predicted (FVCpp), which can mean a missed diagnosis.

Investigators who studied the association between self-identified race and visually identified emphysema among 2,674 participants in the Coronary Artery Risk Development in Young Adults study found that using standard equations to adjust for racial differences in lung-function measures appeared to miss emphysema in a significant proportion of Black patients.
 

PF registry study

In the current study, to see whether the use of race-neutral equations for evaluating FVCpp could change access to health care in patients with ILD, Dr. Adegunsoye and colleagues used both race-specific and race-neutral equations to calculate FVCpp values among separate cohorts of Black, Hispanic/Latino, and White patients enrolled in the Pulmonary Fibrosis Foundation Patient Registry who had pulmonary functions test within about 90 days of enrollment.

The race-specific equations used to calculate FVCpp was that published in 1999 by Hankinson and colleagues in American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine. The race-neutral Global Lung Function Initiative (GLI) equations by Bowerman and colleagues were developed in 2022 and published in March 2023 in the same journal.

The investigators defined access to care as enrollment in ILD clinical trials for patients with FVCpp greater than 45% but less than 90%, and US payer access to antifibrotic therapy for patients with FVCpp of greater than 55% but less than 82%.

They found that 22% of Black patients were misclassified in their eligibility for clinical trials in each of two scenarios – those who would be excluded from trials using the 1999 criteria but included using the 2022 criteria, and vice versa, that is included with 1999 criteria but excluded by the 2022 GLI criteria. In contrast, 14% of Hispanic Latino patients and 12% of White patients were misclassified.

Using the 1999 criteria to exclude patients because their values were ostensibly higher than the upper cutoff meant that 10.3% of Black patients who might benefit would be ineligible for clinical trial, compared with 0% of Hispanic/Latinos and 0.1% of Whites.

Similarly, 11.5% of Black patients but no Hispanic/Latino or White patients would be considered eligible for clinical trials using the old criteria but ineligible under the new criteria.

Regarding antifibrotic therapy eligibility, the respective misclassification rates were 21%, 17%, and 19%.­

“Our study showed that use of race-specific equations may confound lung function tests, potentially leading to misclassification, delayed diagnosis, and inadequate treatment provision. While our study suggests potential disparities in access to health care for patients with interstitial lung disease facilitated by race-specific equations, further research is required to fully comprehend the implications,” the investigators wrote.
 

ATS statement

In an interview, Juan Wisnievsky, MD, DrPh, from Mount Sinai Medical Center, New York, who also chairs the Health Equity and Diversity Committee for the American Thoracic Society, pointed to a recent ATS statement he coauthored citing evidence for replacing race and ethnicity-specific equations with race-neutral average reference equations.

“This use of race and ethnicity may contribute to health disparities by norming differences in pulmonary function. In the United States and globally, race serves as a social construct that is based on appearance and reflects social values, structures, and practices. Classification of people into racial and ethnic groups differs geographically and temporally. These considerations challenge the notion that racial and ethnic categories have biological meaning and question the use of race in PFT interpretation,” the statement authors wrote.

“There is some agreement that race-based equations shouldn’t be used, but all the potential consequences of doing that and which equations would be the best ones to use to replace them is a bit unclear,” Dr. Wisnievsky said.

He was not involved in the study by Dr. Adegunsoye and colleagues.

Data used in the study were derived from research sponsored by F. Hoffman–La Roche and Genentech. Dr. Adegunsoye disclosed consultancy fees from AbbVie, Inogen, F. Hoffman–La Roche, Medscape, and PatientMpower; speaking/advisory fees from Boehringer Ingelheim; and grants/award from the CHEST Foundation, Pulmonary Fibrosis Foundation, and National Institutes of Health. Dr. Wisnievsky had no relevant disclosures.

HONOLULU – Old habits die hard, especially when it comes to pulmonary function testing in a diverse population of patients with interstitial lung disease (ILD).

Specifically, pulmonary care clinicians may be habitually relying on outdated and inaccurate race-specific reference values when evaluating respiratory impairment in persons of African and Hispanic/Latino ancestry, which can result in underrecognition, underdiagnosis, and undertreatment, reported Ayodeji Adegunsoye, MD, from the University of Chicago, and colleagues.

“Our results make a compelling case for re-evaluating the use of race as a physiological variable, and highlight the need to offer equitable and optimal care for all patients, regardless of their race or ethnicity,” Dr. Adegunsoye said in an oral abstract session at the annual meeting of the American College of Chest Physicians (CHEST).
 

Flawed assumptions

In an interview, Dr. Adegunsoye noted that race-specific notions, such as the automatic assumption that Black people have less lung capacity than White people, are baked into clinical practice and passed on as clinical wisdom from one generation of clinicians to the next.

Pulmonary function reference values that are used to make a diagnosis of idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis in Black or Hispanic/Latino patients “appear flawed when we use race-specific values. And beyond the diagnosis, it also appears to impact eligibility for key interventional strategies for managing the disease itself,” he said.

The use of race-specific equations can falsely inflate percent-predicted pulmonary function values in non-White patients, and make it seem as if a patient has normal lung function when in fact he may be have impaired function.

For example, using race-based reference values a Black patient and a White patient may appear to have the same absolute forced vital capacity readings, but different FVC percent predicted (FVCpp), which can mean a missed diagnosis.

Investigators who studied the association between self-identified race and visually identified emphysema among 2,674 participants in the Coronary Artery Risk Development in Young Adults study found that using standard equations to adjust for racial differences in lung-function measures appeared to miss emphysema in a significant proportion of Black patients.
 

PF registry study

In the current study, to see whether the use of race-neutral equations for evaluating FVCpp could change access to health care in patients with ILD, Dr. Adegunsoye and colleagues used both race-specific and race-neutral equations to calculate FVCpp values among separate cohorts of Black, Hispanic/Latino, and White patients enrolled in the Pulmonary Fibrosis Foundation Patient Registry who had pulmonary functions test within about 90 days of enrollment.

The race-specific equations used to calculate FVCpp was that published in 1999 by Hankinson and colleagues in American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine. The race-neutral Global Lung Function Initiative (GLI) equations by Bowerman and colleagues were developed in 2022 and published in March 2023 in the same journal.

The investigators defined access to care as enrollment in ILD clinical trials for patients with FVCpp greater than 45% but less than 90%, and US payer access to antifibrotic therapy for patients with FVCpp of greater than 55% but less than 82%.

They found that 22% of Black patients were misclassified in their eligibility for clinical trials in each of two scenarios – those who would be excluded from trials using the 1999 criteria but included using the 2022 criteria, and vice versa, that is included with 1999 criteria but excluded by the 2022 GLI criteria. In contrast, 14% of Hispanic Latino patients and 12% of White patients were misclassified.

Using the 1999 criteria to exclude patients because their values were ostensibly higher than the upper cutoff meant that 10.3% of Black patients who might benefit would be ineligible for clinical trial, compared with 0% of Hispanic/Latinos and 0.1% of Whites.

Similarly, 11.5% of Black patients but no Hispanic/Latino or White patients would be considered eligible for clinical trials using the old criteria but ineligible under the new criteria.

Regarding antifibrotic therapy eligibility, the respective misclassification rates were 21%, 17%, and 19%.­

“Our study showed that use of race-specific equations may confound lung function tests, potentially leading to misclassification, delayed diagnosis, and inadequate treatment provision. While our study suggests potential disparities in access to health care for patients with interstitial lung disease facilitated by race-specific equations, further research is required to fully comprehend the implications,” the investigators wrote.
 

ATS statement

In an interview, Juan Wisnievsky, MD, DrPh, from Mount Sinai Medical Center, New York, who also chairs the Health Equity and Diversity Committee for the American Thoracic Society, pointed to a recent ATS statement he coauthored citing evidence for replacing race and ethnicity-specific equations with race-neutral average reference equations.

“This use of race and ethnicity may contribute to health disparities by norming differences in pulmonary function. In the United States and globally, race serves as a social construct that is based on appearance and reflects social values, structures, and practices. Classification of people into racial and ethnic groups differs geographically and temporally. These considerations challenge the notion that racial and ethnic categories have biological meaning and question the use of race in PFT interpretation,” the statement authors wrote.

“There is some agreement that race-based equations shouldn’t be used, but all the potential consequences of doing that and which equations would be the best ones to use to replace them is a bit unclear,” Dr. Wisnievsky said.

He was not involved in the study by Dr. Adegunsoye and colleagues.

Data used in the study were derived from research sponsored by F. Hoffman–La Roche and Genentech. Dr. Adegunsoye disclosed consultancy fees from AbbVie, Inogen, F. Hoffman–La Roche, Medscape, and PatientMpower; speaking/advisory fees from Boehringer Ingelheim; and grants/award from the CHEST Foundation, Pulmonary Fibrosis Foundation, and National Institutes of Health. Dr. Wisnievsky had no relevant disclosures.

Beauty has been a topic of interest for centuries. Treatments and technologies have advanced, and more women are utilizing cosmetic procedures than ever before, especially neuromodulators, minimally invasive procedures, and topical treatments.¹ Over the last decade, there was a 99% increase in minimally invasive cosmetic procedures in the United States.² There also has been an observable increase in the utilization of cosmetic procedures by Black patients in recent years; the American Society of Plastic Surgeons reported that the number of cosmetic plastic surgery procedures performed on “ethnic patients” (referring to Asian, Black, or Hispanic patients) increased 243% from 2000 to 2013,³ possibly attributed to increased accessibility, awareness of procedures due to social media, cultural acceptance, and affordability. Minimally invasive procedures are considerably less expensive than major surgical procedures and are becoming progressively more affordable, with numerous financing options available.² Additionally, neuromodulators and fillers are now commonly administered by nonaesthetic health professionals including dentists and nurses, which has increased accessibility of these procedures among patients who typically may not seek out a consultation with a plastic surgeon or dermatologist.⁴

When examining the most common cosmetic procedures collectively sought out by patients with skin of color (SOC), it has been found that an even skin tone is a highly desirable feature that impacts the selection of products and procedures in this particular patient population.⁵ Black, Hispanic, and Asian women report fewer signs of facial aging compared to White women in the glabellar lines, crow’s-feet, oral commissures, perioral lines, and lips.⁶ Increased melanocytes in darker skin types help prevent photoaging but also increase susceptibility to dyschromia. Prior studies have reported the most common concerns by patients with SOC are dyschromic disorders such as postinflammatory hyperpigmentation, postinflammatory hypopigmentation, and melasma.⁷ Common minimally invasive cosmetic procedures utilized by the SOC population include chemical peels, laser treatments, and injectables. Fillers are utilized more for volume loss in SOC patients rather than for the deep furrows and rhytides commonly seen in the lower face of White patients.⁸

We conducted a survey among Black women currently residing in the United States to better understand attitudes toward beauty and aging as well as the utilization of minimally invasive cosmetic procedures in this patient population.

Methods

An in-depth questionnaire comprised of 17 questions was created for this cross-sectional observational study. The study was submitted to and deemed exempt by the institutional review board at the University of Miami (Miami, Florida)(IRB #20211184). Survey participants primarily were recruited via social media posts on personal profiles of Black dermatologists, medical residents, and medicalstudents, including the authors, targeting Black women in the United States. Utilizing a method called snowball sampling, whereby study participants are used to recruit future participants, individuals were instructed to share the survey with their social network to assist with survey distribution. After participants provided informed consent, data were captured using the REDCap secure online data collection software. The questionnaire was structured to include a sociodemographic profile of respondents, attitudes toward beauty and aging, current usage of beauty products, prior utilization of cosmetic procedures, and intentions to use cosmetic procedures in the future. Surveys with incomplete consent forms, incomplete responses, and duplicate responses, as well as surveys from participants who were not residing in the United States at the time of survey completion, were excluded.

Data characteristics were summarized by frequency and percentage. A χ² test was performed to compare participants’ age demographics with their attitudes toward beauty and aging, utilization of cosmetic procedures, and intention to try cosmetic procedures in the future. The Fisher exact test was used instead of the χ² test when the expected cell count was less than 5. For all tests, P<.05 was considered statistically significant. All statistical analyses were performed using SPSS software version 28.

Results

General Characteristics of Participants—A sample of 475 self-identified Black women aged 21 to 70 years participated in the study, and 352 eligible participants were included in the final analysis. Of the 352 eligible participants, 48.3% were aged 21 to 30 years, 47.2% were aged 31 to 40 years, and 4.5% were aged 41 to 50 years. All survey participants identified their race as Black; among them, 4% specified Hispanic or Latino ethnicity, and 9% indicated that they held multiracial identities including White/Caucasian, Asian, and Native American backgrounds. Regarding the participants’ citizenship status, 54.3% reported that both they and their parents were born in the United States; 2.3% were not US citizens or permanent residents, 13.1% identified as first-generation Americans (born outside of the United States), and 30.4% identified as second-generation Americans (one or both parents born outside of the United States). Participant education levels (based on highest level) varied greatly: 4.5% were high school graduates, 1.1% attended trade or technical schools, 3.4% had associate’s degrees, 39.8% had bachelor’s degrees, 35.2% had master’s degrees, and 15.9% had doctorate degrees. Regarding household income, 6.3% earned less than $25,000 per year, 16.8% earned from $25,000 to $99,999, 75.6% earned from $100,000 to $499,999, and 1.4% earned $500,000 or more. Patient demographics are provided in Table 1.

Cosmetic Skin Concerns—The top 3 aging skin concerns among participants were fine lines and wrinkles (51.9%), dark circles (33.8%), and uneven skin tone (31.8%) (Table 2). Approximately 5.4% of participants reported no desire to avoid the natural aging process. Among age groups, fine lines and wrinkles were a major concern for 51.7% of 21- to 30-year-olds, 47.6% of 31- to 40-year-olds, and 43.5% of 41- to 50-year-olds. Dark circles were a major concern for 61.3% of 21- to 30-year-olds, 44.4% of 31- to 40-year-olds, and 46.8% of 41- to 50-year-olds. Uneven skin tone was a major concern for 56.2% of 21- to 30-year-olds, 46.5% of 31- to 40-year-olds, and 31.2% of 41- to 50-year-olds. There was no statistically significant association between participants’ age and their concern with aging skin concerns.

Differences in Experience and Acceptance of Cosmetic Procedures—Regarding participants’ prior experience with cosmetic procedures, 22.3% had tried 1 or more procedures. Additionally, 67.0% reported having intentions of trying cosmetic procedures in the future, while 10.8% reported no intentions. Of those who were uninterested in trying cosmetic procedures, 78.9% (30/38) believed it unnecessary while 47.3% (18/38) reported a fear of looking unnatural. Other perceived deterrents to cosmetic procedures among this subset of participants were the need to repeat treatment for lasting results (28.9% [11/38]), too expensive (31.6% [12/38]), and fear of side effects (39.5% [15/38]). A significant difference was found between participants’ age and their experience with cosmetic procedures (P=.020). Participants aged 21 to 30 years reported they were more likely to want to try cosmetic procedures in the future. Participants aged 31 to 40 years were more likely to have already tried a cosmetic procedure. Participants aged 41 to 50 years were more likely to report no desire to try cosmetic procedures in the future. There was no significant difference in cosmetic procedure acceptance according to citizenship status, education level, or household income.

Differences in Cosmetic Procedure Experience—Study participants indicated awareness of typically practiced cosmetic procedures. Of the 78 participants who have tried cosmetic procedures (Figure 1), the most common were laser hair removal (46.2% [36/78]), chemical peels (37.2% [29/78]), and microdermabrasion (24.4% [19/78])(Table 2). Age significantly influenced the type of cosmetic procedures utilized by participants (P<.001). Laser hair removal was the most common cosmetic procedure utilized by participants aged 21 to 30 years (64.7%) and chemical peels in participants aged 31 to 40 years (47.8%); participants aged 41 to 50 years reported equal use of chemical peels (50.0%) and microdermabrasion (50.0%).

Two hundred thirty-six participants reported interest in trying cosmetic procedures, specifically laser hair removal (57.6%), chemical peels (51.7%), and neuromodulators (41.9%)(Table 2). Although not statistically significant, age appeared to influence interest levels in cosmetic procedures. Participants aged 21 to 30 years and 31 to 40 years were most interested in trying laser hair removal (60.7% and 58.3%, respectively). Participants aged 41 to 50 years were most interested in trying neuromodulators (36.4%). There was no significant association between age and intention to try neuromodulators, chemical peels, or laser hair removal.

Attitudes Toward Beauty—Approximately 40.6% of participants believed that peak beauty occurs when women reach their 20s, and 38.6% believed that peak beauty occurs when women reach their 30s. Participants’ strategies for maintaining beauty were assessed through their regular use of certain skin care products. The most frequently used skin care products were face wash or cleanser (92.6%), moisturizer (90.1%), lip balm (76.1%), and facial sunscreen (62.2%). Other commonly used items were serum (34.7%), toner (34.9%), topical vitamin C (33.2%), and retinol/retinoid products (33.0%). Only 2.3% of participants reported not using any skin care products regularly.

Perceptions of Aging—Concerning perceived external age, most respondents believed they looked younger than their true age (69.9%); 24.4% believed they looked their true age, and 5.7% believed they looked older. Perception of age also varied considerably by age group, though most believed they looked younger than their true age.

Comment

This survey helped to identify trends in cosmetic procedure acceptance and utilization in Black women. As expected, younger Black women were more receptive to cosmetic procedures, which was consistent with a recent finding that cosmetic procedures tend to be more widely accepted among younger generations overall.⁸ Participants aged 21 to 30 years had greater intentions to try a cosmetic procedure, while those aged 31 to 40 years were more likely to have tried 1 or more cosmetic procedures already, which may be because they are just beginning to see the signs of aging and are motivated to address these concerns. Additionally, women in this age group may be more likely to have a stable source of income and be able to afford these procedures. It is important to note that the population surveyed had a much higher reported household income than the average Black household income, with most respondents reporting an average annual income of $100,000 to $499,000. Our data also showed a trend toward greater acceptance and utilization of cosmetic procedures in those with higher levels of income, though the results were not statistically significant.

Respondents were most concerned about fine lines and wrinkles, followed by dark circles and uneven skin tone. One report in the literature (N=2000) indicated that the most common cosmetic concerns in women with SOC were hyperpigmentation/dark spots (86%) and blotchy or uneven skin (80%).⁹ Interestingly, sunscreen was one of the more commonly used products in our survey, which historically has not been the case among individuals with SOC¹⁰ and suggests that the attitudes and perceptions of SOC patients are changing to favor more frequent sunscreen use, at least among the younger generations. Because we did not specify moisturizer vs moisturizer with sun protection factor, the use of facial sunscreen may even be underestimated in our survey.

Compared to cosmetic surgery or dermal fillers, the procedures found to be most frequently utilized in our study population—microdermabrasion, chemical peels, and laser hair removal—are less invasive and fairly accessible with minimal downtime. An interesting topic for further research would be to investigate how the willingness of women to openly share their cosmetic procedure usage has changed over time. The rise of social media and influencer culture has undoubtedly had an impact on the sharing of such information. It also would have been interesting to ask participants where they receive the majority of their health/beauty information.

All skin types are susceptible to photoaging; however, melanin is known to have a natural photoprotective effect, resulting in a lesser degree and later onset of photoaging in patients with darker vs lighter skin.¹¹ It has been reported that individuals with SOC show signs of facial aging on average a decade later than those with lighter skin tones,¹² which may be why the majority of participants believed they look younger than they truly are. As expected, dyspigmentation was among the top skin concerns in our study population. Although melanin does offer some degree of protection against UVA and UVB, melanocyte lability with inflammation may make darker skin types more susceptible to pigmentary issues.¹³

Study Limitations—The income levels of our study population were not representative of typical Black American households, which is a limitation. Seventy-seven percent of our study population earned more than $100,000 annually, while only 18% of Black American households earned more than $100,000 in 2019.¹⁴ Another major limitation of our study was the lack of representation from older generations, as most participants were aged 21 to 40 years, which was expected, as it is the younger generation who typically is targeted by a snowball sampling method primarily shared through social media. Additionally, because participants were recruited from the social media profiles of medical professionals, followers of these accounts may be more interested in cosmetic procedures, skewing the study results. Finally, because geographic location was not captured in our initial data collection, we were unable to determine if results from a particular location within the United States were overrepresented in the data set.

Conclusion

Although the discourse around beauty and antiaging is constantly evolving, data about Black women frequently are underrepresented in the literature. The results of this study highlight the changing attitudes and perceptions of Black women regarding beauty, aging, and minimally invasive cosmetic procedures. Dermatologists should stay abreast of current trends in this population to be able to make appropriate, culturally sensitive recommendations to their Black patients—for example, pointing them to sunscreen brands that are best suited for darker skin.

Beauty has been a topic of interest for centuries. Treatments and technologies have advanced, and more women are utilizing cosmetic procedures than ever before, especially neuromodulators, minimally invasive procedures, and topical treatments.¹ Over the last decade, there was a 99% increase in minimally invasive cosmetic procedures in the United States.² There also has been an observable increase in the utilization of cosmetic procedures by Black patients in recent years; the American Society of Plastic Surgeons reported that the number of cosmetic plastic surgery procedures performed on “ethnic patients” (referring to Asian, Black, or Hispanic patients) increased 243% from 2000 to 2013,³ possibly attributed to increased accessibility, awareness of procedures due to social media, cultural acceptance, and affordability. Minimally invasive procedures are considerably less expensive than major surgical procedures and are becoming progressively more affordable, with numerous financing options available.² Additionally, neuromodulators and fillers are now commonly administered by nonaesthetic health professionals including dentists and nurses, which has increased accessibility of these procedures among patients who typically may not seek out a consultation with a plastic surgeon or dermatologist.⁴

When examining the most common cosmetic procedures collectively sought out by patients with skin of color (SOC), it has been found that an even skin tone is a highly desirable feature that impacts the selection of products and procedures in this particular patient population.⁵ Black, Hispanic, and Asian women report fewer signs of facial aging compared to White women in the glabellar lines, crow’s-feet, oral commissures, perioral lines, and lips.⁶ Increased melanocytes in darker skin types help prevent photoaging but also increase susceptibility to dyschromia. Prior studies have reported the most common concerns by patients with SOC are dyschromic disorders such as postinflammatory hyperpigmentation, postinflammatory hypopigmentation, and melasma.⁷ Common minimally invasive cosmetic procedures utilized by the SOC population include chemical peels, laser treatments, and injectables. Fillers are utilized more for volume loss in SOC patients rather than for the deep furrows and rhytides commonly seen in the lower face of White patients.⁸

We conducted a survey among Black women currently residing in the United States to better understand attitudes toward beauty and aging as well as the utilization of minimally invasive cosmetic procedures in this patient population.

Methods

An in-depth questionnaire comprised of 17 questions was created for this cross-sectional observational study. The study was submitted to and deemed exempt by the institutional review board at the University of Miami (Miami, Florida)(IRB #20211184). Survey participants primarily were recruited via social media posts on personal profiles of Black dermatologists, medical residents, and medicalstudents, including the authors, targeting Black women in the United States. Utilizing a method called snowball sampling, whereby study participants are used to recruit future participants, individuals were instructed to share the survey with their social network to assist with survey distribution. After participants provided informed consent, data were captured using the REDCap secure online data collection software. The questionnaire was structured to include a sociodemographic profile of respondents, attitudes toward beauty and aging, current usage of beauty products, prior utilization of cosmetic procedures, and intentions to use cosmetic procedures in the future. Surveys with incomplete consent forms, incomplete responses, and duplicate responses, as well as surveys from participants who were not residing in the United States at the time of survey completion, were excluded.

Data characteristics were summarized by frequency and percentage. A χ² test was performed to compare participants’ age demographics with their attitudes toward beauty and aging, utilization of cosmetic procedures, and intention to try cosmetic procedures in the future. The Fisher exact test was used instead of the χ² test when the expected cell count was less than 5. For all tests, P<.05 was considered statistically significant. All statistical analyses were performed using SPSS software version 28.

Results

General Characteristics of Participants—A sample of 475 self-identified Black women aged 21 to 70 years participated in the study, and 352 eligible participants were included in the final analysis. Of the 352 eligible participants, 48.3% were aged 21 to 30 years, 47.2% were aged 31 to 40 years, and 4.5% were aged 41 to 50 years. All survey participants identified their race as Black; among them, 4% specified Hispanic or Latino ethnicity, and 9% indicated that they held multiracial identities including White/Caucasian, Asian, and Native American backgrounds. Regarding the participants’ citizenship status, 54.3% reported that both they and their parents were born in the United States; 2.3% were not US citizens or permanent residents, 13.1% identified as first-generation Americans (born outside of the United States), and 30.4% identified as second-generation Americans (one or both parents born outside of the United States). Participant education levels (based on highest level) varied greatly: 4.5% were high school graduates, 1.1% attended trade or technical schools, 3.4% had associate’s degrees, 39.8% had bachelor’s degrees, 35.2% had master’s degrees, and 15.9% had doctorate degrees. Regarding household income, 6.3% earned less than $25,000 per year, 16.8% earned from $25,000 to $99,999, 75.6% earned from $100,000 to $499,999, and 1.4% earned $500,000 or more. Patient demographics are provided in Table 1.

Cosmetic Skin Concerns—The top 3 aging skin concerns among participants were fine lines and wrinkles (51.9%), dark circles (33.8%), and uneven skin tone (31.8%) (Table 2). Approximately 5.4% of participants reported no desire to avoid the natural aging process. Among age groups, fine lines and wrinkles were a major concern for 51.7% of 21- to 30-year-olds, 47.6% of 31- to 40-year-olds, and 43.5% of 41- to 50-year-olds. Dark circles were a major concern for 61.3% of 21- to 30-year-olds, 44.4% of 31- to 40-year-olds, and 46.8% of 41- to 50-year-olds. Uneven skin tone was a major concern for 56.2% of 21- to 30-year-olds, 46.5% of 31- to 40-year-olds, and 31.2% of 41- to 50-year-olds. There was no statistically significant association between participants’ age and their concern with aging skin concerns.

Differences in Experience and Acceptance of Cosmetic Procedures—Regarding participants’ prior experience with cosmetic procedures, 22.3% had tried 1 or more procedures. Additionally, 67.0% reported having intentions of trying cosmetic procedures in the future, while 10.8% reported no intentions. Of those who were uninterested in trying cosmetic procedures, 78.9% (30/38) believed it unnecessary while 47.3% (18/38) reported a fear of looking unnatural. Other perceived deterrents to cosmetic procedures among this subset of participants were the need to repeat treatment for lasting results (28.9% [11/38]), too expensive (31.6% [12/38]), and fear of side effects (39.5% [15/38]). A significant difference was found between participants’ age and their experience with cosmetic procedures (P=.020). Participants aged 21 to 30 years reported they were more likely to want to try cosmetic procedures in the future. Participants aged 31 to 40 years were more likely to have already tried a cosmetic procedure. Participants aged 41 to 50 years were more likely to report no desire to try cosmetic procedures in the future. There was no significant difference in cosmetic procedure acceptance according to citizenship status, education level, or household income.

Differences in Cosmetic Procedure Experience—Study participants indicated awareness of typically practiced cosmetic procedures. Of the 78 participants who have tried cosmetic procedures (Figure 1), the most common were laser hair removal (46.2% [36/78]), chemical peels (37.2% [29/78]), and microdermabrasion (24.4% [19/78])(Table 2). Age significantly influenced the type of cosmetic procedures utilized by participants (P<.001). Laser hair removal was the most common cosmetic procedure utilized by participants aged 21 to 30 years (64.7%) and chemical peels in participants aged 31 to 40 years (47.8%); participants aged 41 to 50 years reported equal use of chemical peels (50.0%) and microdermabrasion (50.0%).

Two hundred thirty-six participants reported interest in trying cosmetic procedures, specifically laser hair removal (57.6%), chemical peels (51.7%), and neuromodulators (41.9%)(Table 2). Although not statistically significant, age appeared to influence interest levels in cosmetic procedures. Participants aged 21 to 30 years and 31 to 40 years were most interested in trying laser hair removal (60.7% and 58.3%, respectively). Participants aged 41 to 50 years were most interested in trying neuromodulators (36.4%). There was no significant association between age and intention to try neuromodulators, chemical peels, or laser hair removal.

Attitudes Toward Beauty—Approximately 40.6% of participants believed that peak beauty occurs when women reach their 20s, and 38.6% believed that peak beauty occurs when women reach their 30s. Participants’ strategies for maintaining beauty were assessed through their regular use of certain skin care products. The most frequently used skin care products were face wash or cleanser (92.6%), moisturizer (90.1%), lip balm (76.1%), and facial sunscreen (62.2%). Other commonly used items were serum (34.7%), toner (34.9%), topical vitamin C (33.2%), and retinol/retinoid products (33.0%). Only 2.3% of participants reported not using any skin care products regularly.

Perceptions of Aging—Concerning perceived external age, most respondents believed they looked younger than their true age (69.9%); 24.4% believed they looked their true age, and 5.7% believed they looked older. Perception of age also varied considerably by age group, though most believed they looked younger than their true age.

Comment

This survey helped to identify trends in cosmetic procedure acceptance and utilization in Black women. As expected, younger Black women were more receptive to cosmetic procedures, which was consistent with a recent finding that cosmetic procedures tend to be more widely accepted among younger generations overall.⁸ Participants aged 21 to 30 years had greater intentions to try a cosmetic procedure, while those aged 31 to 40 years were more likely to have tried 1 or more cosmetic procedures already, which may be because they are just beginning to see the signs of aging and are motivated to address these concerns. Additionally, women in this age group may be more likely to have a stable source of income and be able to afford these procedures. It is important to note that the population surveyed had a much higher reported household income than the average Black household income, with most respondents reporting an average annual income of $100,000 to $499,000. Our data also showed a trend toward greater acceptance and utilization of cosmetic procedures in those with higher levels of income, though the results were not statistically significant.

Respondents were most concerned about fine lines and wrinkles, followed by dark circles and uneven skin tone. One report in the literature (N=2000) indicated that the most common cosmetic concerns in women with SOC were hyperpigmentation/dark spots (86%) and blotchy or uneven skin (80%).⁹ Interestingly, sunscreen was one of the more commonly used products in our survey, which historically has not been the case among individuals with SOC¹⁰ and suggests that the attitudes and perceptions of SOC patients are changing to favor more frequent sunscreen use, at least among the younger generations. Because we did not specify moisturizer vs moisturizer with sun protection factor, the use of facial sunscreen may even be underestimated in our survey.

Compared to cosmetic surgery or dermal fillers, the procedures found to be most frequently utilized in our study population—microdermabrasion, chemical peels, and laser hair removal—are less invasive and fairly accessible with minimal downtime. An interesting topic for further research would be to investigate how the willingness of women to openly share their cosmetic procedure usage has changed over time. The rise of social media and influencer culture has undoubtedly had an impact on the sharing of such information. It also would have been interesting to ask participants where they receive the majority of their health/beauty information.

All skin types are susceptible to photoaging; however, melanin is known to have a natural photoprotective effect, resulting in a lesser degree and later onset of photoaging in patients with darker vs lighter skin.¹¹ It has been reported that individuals with SOC show signs of facial aging on average a decade later than those with lighter skin tones,¹² which may be why the majority of participants believed they look younger than they truly are. As expected, dyspigmentation was among the top skin concerns in our study population. Although melanin does offer some degree of protection against UVA and UVB, melanocyte lability with inflammation may make darker skin types more susceptible to pigmentary issues.¹³

Study Limitations—The income levels of our study population were not representative of typical Black American households, which is a limitation. Seventy-seven percent of our study population earned more than $100,000 annually, while only 18% of Black American households earned more than $100,000 in 2019.¹⁴ Another major limitation of our study was the lack of representation from older generations, as most participants were aged 21 to 40 years, which was expected, as it is the younger generation who typically is targeted by a snowball sampling method primarily shared through social media. Additionally, because participants were recruited from the social media profiles of medical professionals, followers of these accounts may be more interested in cosmetic procedures, skewing the study results. Finally, because geographic location was not captured in our initial data collection, we were unable to determine if results from a particular location within the United States were overrepresented in the data set.

Conclusion

Although the discourse around beauty and antiaging is constantly evolving, data about Black women frequently are underrepresented in the literature. The results of this study highlight the changing attitudes and perceptions of Black women regarding beauty, aging, and minimally invasive cosmetic procedures. Dermatologists should stay abreast of current trends in this population to be able to make appropriate, culturally sensitive recommendations to their Black patients—for example, pointing them to sunscreen brands that are best suited for darker skin.

Beauty has been a topic of interest for centuries. Treatments and technologies have advanced, and more women are utilizing cosmetic procedures than ever before, especially neuromodulators, minimally invasive procedures, and topical treatments.¹ Over the last decade, there was a 99% increase in minimally invasive cosmetic procedures in the United States.² There also has been an observable increase in the utilization of cosmetic procedures by Black patients in recent years; the American Society of Plastic Surgeons reported that the number of cosmetic plastic surgery procedures performed on “ethnic patients” (referring to Asian, Black, or Hispanic patients) increased 243% from 2000 to 2013,³ possibly attributed to increased accessibility, awareness of procedures due to social media, cultural acceptance, and affordability. Minimally invasive procedures are considerably less expensive than major surgical procedures and are becoming progressively more affordable, with numerous financing options available.² Additionally, neuromodulators and fillers are now commonly administered by nonaesthetic health professionals including dentists and nurses, which has increased accessibility of these procedures among patients who typically may not seek out a consultation with a plastic surgeon or dermatologist.⁴

When examining the most common cosmetic procedures collectively sought out by patients with skin of color (SOC), it has been found that an even skin tone is a highly desirable feature that impacts the selection of products and procedures in this particular patient population.⁵ Black, Hispanic, and Asian women report fewer signs of facial aging compared to White women in the glabellar lines, crow’s-feet, oral commissures, perioral lines, and lips.⁶ Increased melanocytes in darker skin types help prevent photoaging but also increase susceptibility to dyschromia. Prior studies have reported the most common concerns by patients with SOC are dyschromic disorders such as postinflammatory hyperpigmentation, postinflammatory hypopigmentation, and melasma.⁷ Common minimally invasive cosmetic procedures utilized by the SOC population include chemical peels, laser treatments, and injectables. Fillers are utilized more for volume loss in SOC patients rather than for the deep furrows and rhytides commonly seen in the lower face of White patients.⁸

We conducted a survey among Black women currently residing in the United States to better understand attitudes toward beauty and aging as well as the utilization of minimally invasive cosmetic procedures in this patient population.

Methods

An in-depth questionnaire comprised of 17 questions was created for this cross-sectional observational study. The study was submitted to and deemed exempt by the institutional review board at the University of Miami (Miami, Florida)(IRB #20211184). Survey participants primarily were recruited via social media posts on personal profiles of Black dermatologists, medical residents, and medicalstudents, including the authors, targeting Black women in the United States. Utilizing a method called snowball sampling, whereby study participants are used to recruit future participants, individuals were instructed to share the survey with their social network to assist with survey distribution. After participants provided informed consent, data were captured using the REDCap secure online data collection software. The questionnaire was structured to include a sociodemographic profile of respondents, attitudes toward beauty and aging, current usage of beauty products, prior utilization of cosmetic procedures, and intentions to use cosmetic procedures in the future. Surveys with incomplete consent forms, incomplete responses, and duplicate responses, as well as surveys from participants who were not residing in the United States at the time of survey completion, were excluded.

Data characteristics were summarized by frequency and percentage. A χ² test was performed to compare participants’ age demographics with their attitudes toward beauty and aging, utilization of cosmetic procedures, and intention to try cosmetic procedures in the future. The Fisher exact test was used instead of the χ² test when the expected cell count was less than 5. For all tests, P<.05 was considered statistically significant. All statistical analyses were performed using SPSS software version 28.

Results

General Characteristics of Participants—A sample of 475 self-identified Black women aged 21 to 70 years participated in the study, and 352 eligible participants were included in the final analysis. Of the 352 eligible participants, 48.3% were aged 21 to 30 years, 47.2% were aged 31 to 40 years, and 4.5% were aged 41 to 50 years. All survey participants identified their race as Black; among them, 4% specified Hispanic or Latino ethnicity, and 9% indicated that they held multiracial identities including White/Caucasian, Asian, and Native American backgrounds. Regarding the participants’ citizenship status, 54.3% reported that both they and their parents were born in the United States; 2.3% were not US citizens or permanent residents, 13.1% identified as first-generation Americans (born outside of the United States), and 30.4% identified as second-generation Americans (one or both parents born outside of the United States). Participant education levels (based on highest level) varied greatly: 4.5% were high school graduates, 1.1% attended trade or technical schools, 3.4% had associate’s degrees, 39.8% had bachelor’s degrees, 35.2% had master’s degrees, and 15.9% had doctorate degrees. Regarding household income, 6.3% earned less than $25,000 per year, 16.8% earned from $25,000 to $99,999, 75.6% earned from $100,000 to $499,999, and 1.4% earned $500,000 or more. Patient demographics are provided in Table 1.

Cosmetic Skin Concerns—The top 3 aging skin concerns among participants were fine lines and wrinkles (51.9%), dark circles (33.8%), and uneven skin tone (31.8%) (Table 2). Approximately 5.4% of participants reported no desire to avoid the natural aging process. Among age groups, fine lines and wrinkles were a major concern for 51.7% of 21- to 30-year-olds, 47.6% of 31- to 40-year-olds, and 43.5% of 41- to 50-year-olds. Dark circles were a major concern for 61.3% of 21- to 30-year-olds, 44.4% of 31- to 40-year-olds, and 46.8% of 41- to 50-year-olds. Uneven skin tone was a major concern for 56.2% of 21- to 30-year-olds, 46.5% of 31- to 40-year-olds, and 31.2% of 41- to 50-year-olds. There was no statistically significant association between participants’ age and their concern with aging skin concerns.

Differences in Experience and Acceptance of Cosmetic Procedures—Regarding participants’ prior experience with cosmetic procedures, 22.3% had tried 1 or more procedures. Additionally, 67.0% reported having intentions of trying cosmetic procedures in the future, while 10.8% reported no intentions. Of those who were uninterested in trying cosmetic procedures, 78.9% (30/38) believed it unnecessary while 47.3% (18/38) reported a fear of looking unnatural. Other perceived deterrents to cosmetic procedures among this subset of participants were the need to repeat treatment for lasting results (28.9% [11/38]), too expensive (31.6% [12/38]), and fear of side effects (39.5% [15/38]). A significant difference was found between participants’ age and their experience with cosmetic procedures (P=.020). Participants aged 21 to 30 years reported they were more likely to want to try cosmetic procedures in the future. Participants aged 31 to 40 years were more likely to have already tried a cosmetic procedure. Participants aged 41 to 50 years were more likely to report no desire to try cosmetic procedures in the future. There was no significant difference in cosmetic procedure acceptance according to citizenship status, education level, or household income.

Differences in Cosmetic Procedure Experience—Study participants indicated awareness of typically practiced cosmetic procedures. Of the 78 participants who have tried cosmetic procedures (Figure 1), the most common were laser hair removal (46.2% [36/78]), chemical peels (37.2% [29/78]), and microdermabrasion (24.4% [19/78])(Table 2). Age significantly influenced the type of cosmetic procedures utilized by participants (P<.001). Laser hair removal was the most common cosmetic procedure utilized by participants aged 21 to 30 years (64.7%) and chemical peels in participants aged 31 to 40 years (47.8%); participants aged 41 to 50 years reported equal use of chemical peels (50.0%) and microdermabrasion (50.0%).

Two hundred thirty-six participants reported interest in trying cosmetic procedures, specifically laser hair removal (57.6%), chemical peels (51.7%), and neuromodulators (41.9%)(Table 2). Although not statistically significant, age appeared to influence interest levels in cosmetic procedures. Participants aged 21 to 30 years and 31 to 40 years were most interested in trying laser hair removal (60.7% and 58.3%, respectively). Participants aged 41 to 50 years were most interested in trying neuromodulators (36.4%). There was no significant association between age and intention to try neuromodulators, chemical peels, or laser hair removal.

Attitudes Toward Beauty—Approximately 40.6% of participants believed that peak beauty occurs when women reach their 20s, and 38.6% believed that peak beauty occurs when women reach their 30s. Participants’ strategies for maintaining beauty were assessed through their regular use of certain skin care products. The most frequently used skin care products were face wash or cleanser (92.6%), moisturizer (90.1%), lip balm (76.1%), and facial sunscreen (62.2%). Other commonly used items were serum (34.7%), toner (34.9%), topical vitamin C (33.2%), and retinol/retinoid products (33.0%). Only 2.3% of participants reported not using any skin care products regularly.

Perceptions of Aging—Concerning perceived external age, most respondents believed they looked younger than their true age (69.9%); 24.4% believed they looked their true age, and 5.7% believed they looked older. Perception of age also varied considerably by age group, though most believed they looked younger than their true age.

Comment

This survey helped to identify trends in cosmetic procedure acceptance and utilization in Black women. As expected, younger Black women were more receptive to cosmetic procedures, which was consistent with a recent finding that cosmetic procedures tend to be more widely accepted among younger generations overall.⁸ Participants aged 21 to 30 years had greater intentions to try a cosmetic procedure, while those aged 31 to 40 years were more likely to have tried 1 or more cosmetic procedures already, which may be because they are just beginning to see the signs of aging and are motivated to address these concerns. Additionally, women in this age group may be more likely to have a stable source of income and be able to afford these procedures. It is important to note that the population surveyed had a much higher reported household income than the average Black household income, with most respondents reporting an average annual income of $100,000 to $499,000. Our data also showed a trend toward greater acceptance and utilization of cosmetic procedures in those with higher levels of income, though the results were not statistically significant.

Respondents were most concerned about fine lines and wrinkles, followed by dark circles and uneven skin tone. One report in the literature (N=2000) indicated that the most common cosmetic concerns in women with SOC were hyperpigmentation/dark spots (86%) and blotchy or uneven skin (80%).⁹ Interestingly, sunscreen was one of the more commonly used products in our survey, which historically has not been the case among individuals with SOC¹⁰ and suggests that the attitudes and perceptions of SOC patients are changing to favor more frequent sunscreen use, at least among the younger generations. Because we did not specify moisturizer vs moisturizer with sun protection factor, the use of facial sunscreen may even be underestimated in our survey.

Compared to cosmetic surgery or dermal fillers, the procedures found to be most frequently utilized in our study population—microdermabrasion, chemical peels, and laser hair removal—are less invasive and fairly accessible with minimal downtime. An interesting topic for further research would be to investigate how the willingness of women to openly share their cosmetic procedure usage has changed over time. The rise of social media and influencer culture has undoubtedly had an impact on the sharing of such information. It also would have been interesting to ask participants where they receive the majority of their health/beauty information.

All skin types are susceptible to photoaging; however, melanin is known to have a natural photoprotective effect, resulting in a lesser degree and later onset of photoaging in patients with darker vs lighter skin.¹¹ It has been reported that individuals with SOC show signs of facial aging on average a decade later than those with lighter skin tones,¹² which may be why the majority of participants believed they look younger than they truly are. As expected, dyspigmentation was among the top skin concerns in our study population. Although melanin does offer some degree of protection against UVA and UVB, melanocyte lability with inflammation may make darker skin types more susceptible to pigmentary issues.¹³

Study Limitations—The income levels of our study population were not representative of typical Black American households, which is a limitation. Seventy-seven percent of our study population earned more than $100,000 annually, while only 18% of Black American households earned more than $100,000 in 2019.¹⁴ Another major limitation of our study was the lack of representation from older generations, as most participants were aged 21 to 40 years, which was expected, as it is the younger generation who typically is targeted by a snowball sampling method primarily shared through social media. Additionally, because participants were recruited from the social media profiles of medical professionals, followers of these accounts may be more interested in cosmetic procedures, skewing the study results. Finally, because geographic location was not captured in our initial data collection, we were unable to determine if results from a particular location within the United States were overrepresented in the data set.

Conclusion

Although the discourse around beauty and antiaging is constantly evolving, data about Black women frequently are underrepresented in the literature. The results of this study highlight the changing attitudes and perceptions of Black women regarding beauty, aging, and minimally invasive cosmetic procedures. Dermatologists should stay abreast of current trends in this population to be able to make appropriate, culturally sensitive recommendations to their Black patients—for example, pointing them to sunscreen brands that are best suited for darker skin.

Practice Gap

Proper suture selection is imperative for appropriate wound healing to minimize the risk for infection and inflammation and to reduce scarring. In Mohs micrographic surgery (MMS), suture selection should be given high consideration in patients with skin of color.¹ Using the right type of suture and wound closure technique can lead to favorable aesthetic outcomes by preventing postoperative postinflammatory hyperpigmentation (PIH) and keloids. Data on the choice of suture material in patients with skin of color are limited.

Suture selection depends on a variety of factors including but not limited to the location of the wound on the body, risk for infection, cost, availability, and the personal preference and experience of the MMS surgeon. During the COVID-19 pandemic, suturepreference among dermatologic surgeons shifted to fast-absorbing gut sutures,² offering alternatives to synthetic monofilament polypropylene and nylon sutures. Absorbable sutures reduced the need for in-person follow-up visits without increasing the incidence of postoperative complications.

Despite these benefits, research suggests that natural absorbable gut sutures induce cutaneous inflammation and should be avoided in patients with skin of color.^1,3,4 Nonabsorbable sutures are less reactive, reducing PIH after MMS in patients with skin of color.

Tools and Technique

Use of nonabsorbable stitches is a practical solution to reduce the risk for inflammation in patients with skin of color. Increased inflammation can lead to PIH and increase the risk for keloids in this patient population. Some patients will experience PIH after a surgical procedure regardless of the sutures used to repair the closure; however, one of our goals with patients with skin of color undergoing MMS is to reduce the inflammatory risk that could lead to PIH to ensure optimal aesthetic outcomes.

A middle-aged African woman with darker skin and a history of developing PIH after trauma to the skin presented to our clinic for MMS of a dermatofibrosarcoma protuberans on the upper abdomen. We used a simple running suture with 4-0 nylon to close the surgical wound. We avoided fast-absorbing gut sutures because they have high tissue reactivity^1,4; use of sutures with low tissue reactivity, such as nylon and polypropylene, decreases the risk for inflammation without compromising alignment of wound edges and overall cosmesis of the repair. Prolene also is cost-effective and presents a decreased risk for wound dehiscence.⁵ After cauterizing the wound, we placed multiple synthetic absorbable sutures first to close the wound. We then did a double-running suture of nonabsorbable monofilament suture to reapproximate the epidermal edges with minimal tension. We placed 2 sets of running stitches to minimize the risk for dehiscence along the scar.

The patient was required to return for removal of the nonabsorbable sutures; this postoperative visit was covered by health insurance at no additional cost to the patient. In comparison, long-term repeat visits to treat PIH with a laser or chemical peel would have been more costly. Given that treatment of PIH is considered cosmetic, laser treatment would have been priced at several hundred dollars per session at our institution, and the patient would likely have had a copay for a pretreatment lightening cream such as hydroquinone. Our patient had a favorable cosmetic outcome and reported no or minimal evidence of PIH months after the procedure.

Patients should be instructed to apply petrolatum twice daily, use sun-protective clothing, and cover sutures to minimize exposure to the sun and prevent crusting of the wound. Postinflammatory hyperpigmentation can be proactively treated postoperatively with topical hydroquinone, which was not needed in our patient.

Practice Implications

Although some studies suggest that there are no cosmetic differences between absorbable and nonabsorbable sutures, the effect of suture type in patients with skin of color undergoing MMS often is unreported or is not studied.^6,7 The high reactivity and cutaneous inflammation associated with absorbable gut sutures are important considerations in this patient population.

In patients with skin of color undergoing MMS, we use nonabsorbable epidermal sutures such as nylon and Prolene because of their low reactivity and association with favorable aesthetic outcomes. Nonabsorbable sutures can be safely used in patients of all ages who are undergoing MMS under local anesthesia.

An exception would be the use of the absorbable suture Monocryl (J&J MedTech) in patients with skin of color who need a running subcuticular wound closure because it has low tissue reactivity and maintains high tensile strength. Monocryl has been shown to create less-reactive scars, which decreases the risk for keloids.^8,9

More clinical studies are needed to assess the increased susceptibility to PIH in patients with skin of color when using absorbable gut sutures.

Practice Gap

Proper suture selection is imperative for appropriate wound healing to minimize the risk for infection and inflammation and to reduce scarring. In Mohs micrographic surgery (MMS), suture selection should be given high consideration in patients with skin of color.¹ Using the right type of suture and wound closure technique can lead to favorable aesthetic outcomes by preventing postoperative postinflammatory hyperpigmentation (PIH) and keloids. Data on the choice of suture material in patients with skin of color are limited.

Suture selection depends on a variety of factors including but not limited to the location of the wound on the body, risk for infection, cost, availability, and the personal preference and experience of the MMS surgeon. During the COVID-19 pandemic, suturepreference among dermatologic surgeons shifted to fast-absorbing gut sutures,² offering alternatives to synthetic monofilament polypropylene and nylon sutures. Absorbable sutures reduced the need for in-person follow-up visits without increasing the incidence of postoperative complications.

Despite these benefits, research suggests that natural absorbable gut sutures induce cutaneous inflammation and should be avoided in patients with skin of color.^1,3,4 Nonabsorbable sutures are less reactive, reducing PIH after MMS in patients with skin of color.

Tools and Technique

Use of nonabsorbable stitches is a practical solution to reduce the risk for inflammation in patients with skin of color. Increased inflammation can lead to PIH and increase the risk for keloids in this patient population. Some patients will experience PIH after a surgical procedure regardless of the sutures used to repair the closure; however, one of our goals with patients with skin of color undergoing MMS is to reduce the inflammatory risk that could lead to PIH to ensure optimal aesthetic outcomes.

A middle-aged African woman with darker skin and a history of developing PIH after trauma to the skin presented to our clinic for MMS of a dermatofibrosarcoma protuberans on the upper abdomen. We used a simple running suture with 4-0 nylon to close the surgical wound. We avoided fast-absorbing gut sutures because they have high tissue reactivity^1,4; use of sutures with low tissue reactivity, such as nylon and polypropylene, decreases the risk for inflammation without compromising alignment of wound edges and overall cosmesis of the repair. Prolene also is cost-effective and presents a decreased risk for wound dehiscence.⁵ After cauterizing the wound, we placed multiple synthetic absorbable sutures first to close the wound. We then did a double-running suture of nonabsorbable monofilament suture to reapproximate the epidermal edges with minimal tension. We placed 2 sets of running stitches to minimize the risk for dehiscence along the scar.

The patient was required to return for removal of the nonabsorbable sutures; this postoperative visit was covered by health insurance at no additional cost to the patient. In comparison, long-term repeat visits to treat PIH with a laser or chemical peel would have been more costly. Given that treatment of PIH is considered cosmetic, laser treatment would have been priced at several hundred dollars per session at our institution, and the patient would likely have had a copay for a pretreatment lightening cream such as hydroquinone. Our patient had a favorable cosmetic outcome and reported no or minimal evidence of PIH months after the procedure.

Patients should be instructed to apply petrolatum twice daily, use sun-protective clothing, and cover sutures to minimize exposure to the sun and prevent crusting of the wound. Postinflammatory hyperpigmentation can be proactively treated postoperatively with topical hydroquinone, which was not needed in our patient.

Practice Implications

Although some studies suggest that there are no cosmetic differences between absorbable and nonabsorbable sutures, the effect of suture type in patients with skin of color undergoing MMS often is unreported or is not studied.^6,7 The high reactivity and cutaneous inflammation associated with absorbable gut sutures are important considerations in this patient population.

In patients with skin of color undergoing MMS, we use nonabsorbable epidermal sutures such as nylon and Prolene because of their low reactivity and association with favorable aesthetic outcomes. Nonabsorbable sutures can be safely used in patients of all ages who are undergoing MMS under local anesthesia.

An exception would be the use of the absorbable suture Monocryl (J&J MedTech) in patients with skin of color who need a running subcuticular wound closure because it has low tissue reactivity and maintains high tensile strength. Monocryl has been shown to create less-reactive scars, which decreases the risk for keloids.^8,9

More clinical studies are needed to assess the increased susceptibility to PIH in patients with skin of color when using absorbable gut sutures.

Practice Gap

Proper suture selection is imperative for appropriate wound healing to minimize the risk for infection and inflammation and to reduce scarring. In Mohs micrographic surgery (MMS), suture selection should be given high consideration in patients with skin of color.¹ Using the right type of suture and wound closure technique can lead to favorable aesthetic outcomes by preventing postoperative postinflammatory hyperpigmentation (PIH) and keloids. Data on the choice of suture material in patients with skin of color are limited.

Suture selection depends on a variety of factors including but not limited to the location of the wound on the body, risk for infection, cost, availability, and the personal preference and experience of the MMS surgeon. During the COVID-19 pandemic, suturepreference among dermatologic surgeons shifted to fast-absorbing gut sutures,² offering alternatives to synthetic monofilament polypropylene and nylon sutures. Absorbable sutures reduced the need for in-person follow-up visits without increasing the incidence of postoperative complications.

Despite these benefits, research suggests that natural absorbable gut sutures induce cutaneous inflammation and should be avoided in patients with skin of color.^1,3,4 Nonabsorbable sutures are less reactive, reducing PIH after MMS in patients with skin of color.

Tools and Technique

Use of nonabsorbable stitches is a practical solution to reduce the risk for inflammation in patients with skin of color. Increased inflammation can lead to PIH and increase the risk for keloids in this patient population. Some patients will experience PIH after a surgical procedure regardless of the sutures used to repair the closure; however, one of our goals with patients with skin of color undergoing MMS is to reduce the inflammatory risk that could lead to PIH to ensure optimal aesthetic outcomes.

A middle-aged African woman with darker skin and a history of developing PIH after trauma to the skin presented to our clinic for MMS of a dermatofibrosarcoma protuberans on the upper abdomen. We used a simple running suture with 4-0 nylon to close the surgical wound. We avoided fast-absorbing gut sutures because they have high tissue reactivity^1,4; use of sutures with low tissue reactivity, such as nylon and polypropylene, decreases the risk for inflammation without compromising alignment of wound edges and overall cosmesis of the repair. Prolene also is cost-effective and presents a decreased risk for wound dehiscence.⁵ After cauterizing the wound, we placed multiple synthetic absorbable sutures first to close the wound. We then did a double-running suture of nonabsorbable monofilament suture to reapproximate the epidermal edges with minimal tension. We placed 2 sets of running stitches to minimize the risk for dehiscence along the scar.

The patient was required to return for removal of the nonabsorbable sutures; this postoperative visit was covered by health insurance at no additional cost to the patient. In comparison, long-term repeat visits to treat PIH with a laser or chemical peel would have been more costly. Given that treatment of PIH is considered cosmetic, laser treatment would have been priced at several hundred dollars per session at our institution, and the patient would likely have had a copay for a pretreatment lightening cream such as hydroquinone. Our patient had a favorable cosmetic outcome and reported no or minimal evidence of PIH months after the procedure.

Patients should be instructed to apply petrolatum twice daily, use sun-protective clothing, and cover sutures to minimize exposure to the sun and prevent crusting of the wound. Postinflammatory hyperpigmentation can be proactively treated postoperatively with topical hydroquinone, which was not needed in our patient.

Practice Implications

Although some studies suggest that there are no cosmetic differences between absorbable and nonabsorbable sutures, the effect of suture type in patients with skin of color undergoing MMS often is unreported or is not studied.^6,7 The high reactivity and cutaneous inflammation associated with absorbable gut sutures are important considerations in this patient population.

In patients with skin of color undergoing MMS, we use nonabsorbable epidermal sutures such as nylon and Prolene because of their low reactivity and association with favorable aesthetic outcomes. Nonabsorbable sutures can be safely used in patients of all ages who are undergoing MMS under local anesthesia.

An exception would be the use of the absorbable suture Monocryl (J&J MedTech) in patients with skin of color who need a running subcuticular wound closure because it has low tissue reactivity and maintains high tensile strength. Monocryl has been shown to create less-reactive scars, which decreases the risk for keloids.^8,9

More clinical studies are needed to assess the increased susceptibility to PIH in patients with skin of color when using absorbable gut sutures.

Commercial sperm banks in the United States lack racially and ethnically diverse donors, potentially limiting family-planning options for patients in traditionally underserved populations, according to a study presented at the American Society for Reproductive Medicine’s 2023 meeting.

“This really highlights the need to identify barriers to increase recruitment of these donors so that we can support family-building for all populations,” said Lauren Gibbs, MD, a resident in the department of obstetrics and gynecology at the Morehouse School of Medicine in Atlanta.

Dr. Gibbs and her colleagues compared the racial and ethnic makeup of sperm donors from online and self-reported profiles at 14 of the largest donor banks in the United States for March and April of 2023. Historical data were pulled from two large, national banks. The investigators compared these data to census estimates from 2021 for men between the ages of 18 and 44 years.

Donors who identified as Hispanic (10.9%) or Black (3.3%) were significantly underrepresented as compared to the U.S. population, of which Hispanic men compose 22% and Black men make up 13.3%.

Asian donors were overrepresented, making up 21.9% of the donors but only 6.5% of the U.S. population. White donors were proportionately represented in relation to national demographics, making up 56.6% of the donors and representing 55% of the U.S. population, according to the researchers. None of the donors identified as Native/Hawaiian/Pacific Islander or American Indian/Alaskan Natives; these groups represent 0.22% and 0.79% of the U.S. population, respectively.

“Next steps will be figuring out why this is happening and how to address it,” said Valerie L Baker, MD, director in the division of reproductive endocrinology and infertility at Johns Hopkins Medicine in Lutherville, Md., who was not involved in the study.

The study sheds light on the need to identify and address the barriers that discourage potential donors from underrepresented groups from participating in sperm donation, according to Kimball Pomeroy, PhD, scientific director at the World Egg and Sperm Bank in Scottsdale, Ariz.

“Sometimes there are inhibitors of different ethnic groups to want to act as sperm or egg donors, so trying to understand if that’s the case is important; but I’m sure a lot of it is also related to access,” Dr. Pomeroy, who was not part of the study team, said in an interview.

Longitudinal data from the two national donor banks did not indicate any significant increase or decrease in donation trends across the 5-year period from 2018 to 2022, highlighting the persisting issue of representation disparities. Dr. Gibbs said strategies need to be developed to increase recruitment of donors from underrepresented groups. Increasing the diversity of the donor pool will ultimately support family-building options for all patients, according to Dr. Gibbs.

Funding for the study was provided by the EMD Serono REI Diversity Fellowship Grant. Dr. Gibbs reports no relevant financial relationships.

Commercial sperm banks in the United States lack racially and ethnically diverse donors, potentially limiting family-planning options for patients in traditionally underserved populations, according to a study presented at the American Society for Reproductive Medicine’s 2023 meeting.

“This really highlights the need to identify barriers to increase recruitment of these donors so that we can support family-building for all populations,” said Lauren Gibbs, MD, a resident in the department of obstetrics and gynecology at the Morehouse School of Medicine in Atlanta.

Dr. Gibbs and her colleagues compared the racial and ethnic makeup of sperm donors from online and self-reported profiles at 14 of the largest donor banks in the United States for March and April of 2023. Historical data were pulled from two large, national banks. The investigators compared these data to census estimates from 2021 for men between the ages of 18 and 44 years.

Donors who identified as Hispanic (10.9%) or Black (3.3%) were significantly underrepresented as compared to the U.S. population, of which Hispanic men compose 22% and Black men make up 13.3%.

Asian donors were overrepresented, making up 21.9% of the donors but only 6.5% of the U.S. population. White donors were proportionately represented in relation to national demographics, making up 56.6% of the donors and representing 55% of the U.S. population, according to the researchers. None of the donors identified as Native/Hawaiian/Pacific Islander or American Indian/Alaskan Natives; these groups represent 0.22% and 0.79% of the U.S. population, respectively.

“Next steps will be figuring out why this is happening and how to address it,” said Valerie L Baker, MD, director in the division of reproductive endocrinology and infertility at Johns Hopkins Medicine in Lutherville, Md., who was not involved in the study.

The study sheds light on the need to identify and address the barriers that discourage potential donors from underrepresented groups from participating in sperm donation, according to Kimball Pomeroy, PhD, scientific director at the World Egg and Sperm Bank in Scottsdale, Ariz.

“Sometimes there are inhibitors of different ethnic groups to want to act as sperm or egg donors, so trying to understand if that’s the case is important; but I’m sure a lot of it is also related to access,” Dr. Pomeroy, who was not part of the study team, said in an interview.

Longitudinal data from the two national donor banks did not indicate any significant increase or decrease in donation trends across the 5-year period from 2018 to 2022, highlighting the persisting issue of representation disparities. Dr. Gibbs said strategies need to be developed to increase recruitment of donors from underrepresented groups. Increasing the diversity of the donor pool will ultimately support family-building options for all patients, according to Dr. Gibbs.

Funding for the study was provided by the EMD Serono REI Diversity Fellowship Grant. Dr. Gibbs reports no relevant financial relationships.

Commercial sperm banks in the United States lack racially and ethnically diverse donors, potentially limiting family-planning options for patients in traditionally underserved populations, according to a study presented at the American Society for Reproductive Medicine’s 2023 meeting.

“This really highlights the need to identify barriers to increase recruitment of these donors so that we can support family-building for all populations,” said Lauren Gibbs, MD, a resident in the department of obstetrics and gynecology at the Morehouse School of Medicine in Atlanta.

Dr. Gibbs and her colleagues compared the racial and ethnic makeup of sperm donors from online and self-reported profiles at 14 of the largest donor banks in the United States for March and April of 2023. Historical data were pulled from two large, national banks. The investigators compared these data to census estimates from 2021 for men between the ages of 18 and 44 years.

Donors who identified as Hispanic (10.9%) or Black (3.3%) were significantly underrepresented as compared to the U.S. population, of which Hispanic men compose 22% and Black men make up 13.3%.

Asian donors were overrepresented, making up 21.9% of the donors but only 6.5% of the U.S. population. White donors were proportionately represented in relation to national demographics, making up 56.6% of the donors and representing 55% of the U.S. population, according to the researchers. None of the donors identified as Native/Hawaiian/Pacific Islander or American Indian/Alaskan Natives; these groups represent 0.22% and 0.79% of the U.S. population, respectively.

“Next steps will be figuring out why this is happening and how to address it,” said Valerie L Baker, MD, director in the division of reproductive endocrinology and infertility at Johns Hopkins Medicine in Lutherville, Md., who was not involved in the study.

The study sheds light on the need to identify and address the barriers that discourage potential donors from underrepresented groups from participating in sperm donation, according to Kimball Pomeroy, PhD, scientific director at the World Egg and Sperm Bank in Scottsdale, Ariz.

“Sometimes there are inhibitors of different ethnic groups to want to act as sperm or egg donors, so trying to understand if that’s the case is important; but I’m sure a lot of it is also related to access,” Dr. Pomeroy, who was not part of the study team, said in an interview.

Longitudinal data from the two national donor banks did not indicate any significant increase or decrease in donation trends across the 5-year period from 2018 to 2022, highlighting the persisting issue of representation disparities. Dr. Gibbs said strategies need to be developed to increase recruitment of donors from underrepresented groups. Increasing the diversity of the donor pool will ultimately support family-building options for all patients, according to Dr. Gibbs.

Funding for the study was provided by the EMD Serono REI Diversity Fellowship Grant. Dr. Gibbs reports no relevant financial relationships.

Atopic dermatitis (AD) is a chronic inflammatory disorder that affects individuals worldwide.¹ Although AD previously was commonly described as a skin-limited disease of childhood characterized by eczema in the flexural folds and pruritus, our current understanding supports a more heterogeneous condition.² We review the wide range of cutaneous presentations of AD with a focus on clinical and morphological presentations across diverse skin types—commonly referred to as skin of color (SOC).

Defining SOC in Relation to AD

The terms SOC, race, and ethnicity are used interchangeably, but their true meanings are distinct. Traditionally, race has been defined as a biological concept, grouping cohorts of individuals with a large degree of shared ancestry and genetic similarities,³ and ethnicity as a social construct, grouping individuals with common racial, national, tribal, religious, linguistic, or cultural backgrounds.⁴ In practice, both concepts can broadly be envisioned as mixed social, political, and economic constructs, as no one gene or biologic characteristic distinguishes one racial or ethnic group from another.⁵

The US Census Bureau recognizes 5 racial groupings: White, Black or African American, American Indian or Alaska Native, Asian, and Native Hawaiian or other Pacific Islander.⁶ Hispanic or Latinx origin is considered an ethnicity. It is important to note the limitations of these labels, as they do not completely encapsulate the heterogeneity of the US population. Overgeneralization of racial and ethnic categories may dull or obscure true differences among populations.⁷

From an evolutionary perspective, skin pigmentation represents the product of 2 opposing clines produced by natural selection in response to both need for and protection from UV radiation across lattitudes.⁸ Defining SOC is not quite as simple. Skin of color often is equated with certain racial/ethnic groups, or even binary categories of Black vs non-Black or White vs non-White. Others may use the Fitzpatrick scale to discuss SOC, though this scale was originally created to measure the response of skin to UVA radiation exposure.⁹ The reality is that SOC is a complex term that cannot simply be defined by a certain group of skin tones, races, ethnicities, and/or Fitzpatrick skin types. With this in mind, SOC in the context of this article will often refer to non-White individuals based on the investigators’ terminology, but this definition is not all-encompassing.

Historically in medicine, racial/ethnic differences in outcomes have been equated to differences in biology/genetics without consideration of many external factors.¹⁰ The effects of racism, economic stability, health care access, environment, and education quality rarely are discussed, though they have a major impact on health and may better define associations with race or an SOC population. A discussion of the structural and social determinants of health contributing to disease outcomes should accompany any race-based guidelines to prevent inaccurately pathologizing race or SOC.¹⁰

Within the scope of AD, social determinants of health play an important role in contributing to disease morbidity. Environmental factors, including tobacco smoke, climate, pollutants, water hardness, und urban living, are related to AD prevalence and severity.¹¹ Higher socioeconomic status is associated with increased AD rates,¹² yet lower socioeconomic status is associated with more severe disease.¹³ Barriers to health care access and suboptimal care drive worse AD outcomes.¹⁴ Underrepresentation in clinical trials prevents the generalizability and safety of AD treatments.¹⁵ Disparities in these health determinants associated with AD likely are among the most important drivers of observed differences in disease presentation, severity, burden, and even prevalence—more so than genetics or ancestry alone¹⁶—yet this relationship is poorly understood and often presented as a consequence of race. It is critical to redefine the narrative when considering the heterogeneous presentations of AD in patients with SOC and acknowledge the limitations of current terminology when attempting to capture clinical diversity in AD, including in this review, where published findings often are limited by race-based analysis.

Epidemiology

The prevalence of AD has been increasing over the last few decades, and rates vary by region. In the United States, the prevalence of childhood and adult AD is 13% and 7%, respectively.^17,18 Globally, higher rates of pediatric AD are seen in Africa, Oceania, Southeast Asia (SEA), and Latin America compared to South Asia, Northern Europe, and Eastern Europe.¹⁹ The prevalence of AD varies widely within the same continent and country; for example, throughout Africa, prevalence was found to be anywhere between 4.7% and 23.3%.²⁰

Although AD lesions often are described as pruritic erythematous papules and plaques, other common morphologies in SOC populations include prurigo nodules, lichenoid papules, perifollicular papules, nummular lesions, and psoriasiform lesions (Table). Instead of applying normative terms such as classic vs atypical to AD morphology, we urge clinicians to be familiar with the full spectrum of AD skin signs.

Prurigo Nodules—Prurigo nodules are hyperkeratotic or erosive nodules with severe pruritus, often grouped symmetrically on the extensor surfaces of the arms, legs, and trunk (Figure 1).^14,21 The skin between lesions usually is unaffected but can be dry or lichenified or display postinflammatory pigmentary changes.¹⁴ Prurigo nodules are common. In a study of a cohort of patients with prurigo nodularis (N=108), nearly half (46.3%) were determined to have either an atopic predisposition or underlying AD as a contributing cause of the lesions.²¹

Prurigo nodules as a phenotype of AD may be more common in certain SOC populations. Studies from SEA have reported a higher prevalence of prurigo nodules among patients with AD.²⁸ Although there are limited formal studies assessing the true prevalence of this lesion type in African American AD patients in the United States, clinical evidence supports more frequent appearance of prurigo nodules in non-White patients.²⁹ Contributing factors include suboptimal care for AD in SOC populations and/or barriers to health care access, resulting in more severe disease that increases the risk for this lesion type.¹⁴

Lichenoid Papules—Papular lichenoid lesions often present on the extensor surfaces of the arms and legs in AD (Figure 2).²² In a study of Nigerian patients with AD (N=1019), 54.1% had lichenoid papules.²⁴ A systematic review of AD characteristics by region similarly reported an increased prevalence of this lesion type in African studies.²⁸ Lichenoid variants of AD have been well described in SOC patients in the United States.²³ In contrast to the lesions of lichen planus, the lichenoid papules of AD usually are round, rarely display koebnerization, do not have Wickham striae, and predominantly are located on extensor surfaces.

Perifollicular Papules—Perifollicular accentuation—dermatitis enhanced around hair follicles—is a well-described lesional morphology of AD that is noted in all racial/ethnic groups (Figure 3).²² In fact, perifollicular accentuation is included as one of the Hanifin and Rajka minor criteria for AD.³⁰ Studies performed in Nigeria and India showed perifollicular accentuation in up to 70% of AD patients.^24,31 In a study of adult Thai patients (N=56), follicular lesions were found more frequently in intrinsic AD (29%) compared with extrinsic AD (12%).³²

Nummular and Psoriasiform Lesions—Nummular lesions may be red, oozing, excoriated, studded with pustules and/or present on the extensor extremities (Figure 4). In SOC patients, these lesions often occur in areas where hyperpigmentation is noted.²² Studies in the United States and Mexico demonstrated that 15% to 17% of AD patients displayed nummular lesions.^23,33 Similar to follicular papules, nummular lesions were linked to intrinsic AD in a study of adult Thai patients.³²

Psoriasiform lesions show prominent scaling, lichenification, and clear demarcation.²⁵ It has been reported that the psoriasiform phenotype of AD is more common in Asian patients,²⁵ though this is likely an oversimplification. The participants in these studies were of Japanese and Korean ancestry, which covers a broad geographic region, and the grouping of individuals under a heterogeneous Asian category is unlikely to convey generalizable biologic or clinical information. Unsurprisingly, a systematic review of AD characteristics by region noted considerable phenotypical differences among patients in SEA, East Asia, Iran, and India.²⁸

Disease Severity

Several factors contribute to AD disease severity,³⁴ including objective assessments of inflammation, such as erythema and lichenification (Table), as well as subjective measures of symptoms, such as itch. The severity of AD is exacerbated by the social determinants of health, and a lower socioeconomic status, lower household income, lower parental education level and health, dilapidated housing, and presence of garbage on the street are among factors linked to worse AD disease severity.^13,17 Although non-White individuals with AD often are reported to have more severe disease than their White counterparts,³⁵ these types of health determinants may be the most relevant causes of observed differences.

Erythema—Erythema is a feature of inflammation used in the AD severity assessment. Erythema may appear in shades beyond red, including maroon, violaceous, or brown, in patients with darker pigmented skin, which may contribute to diagnosis of AD at a later disease stage.²⁶ Multiple AD severity scoring tools, such as the SCORing Atopic Dermatitis and Eczema Area and Severity Index, include erythema as a measure, which can lead to underestimation of AD severity in SOC populations. After adjusting for erythema score, one study found that Black children with AD had a risk for severe disease that was 6-times higher than White children.³⁶ Dermatological training must adequately teach physicians to recognize erythema across all skin tones.³⁷

Erythroderma (also known as exfoliative dermatitis) is rapidly spreading erythema on at least 90% of the total body surface area, often sparing the palms and soles.³² Erythroderma is a potentially life-threatening manifestation of severe AD. Although erythroderma may have many underlying causes, AD has been reported to be the cause in 5% to 24% of cases,³⁸ and compared to studies in Europe, the prevalence of erythroderma was higher in East Asian studies of AD.²⁸

Excoriation and Pruritus—Pruritus is a defining characteristic of AD, and the resulting excoriations often are predominant on physical examination, which is a key part of severity scores. Itch is the most prevalent symptom among patients with AD, and a greater itch severity has been linked to decreased health-related quality of life, increased mental health symptoms, impaired sleep, and decreased daily function.^39,40 The burden of itch may be greater in SOC populations. The impact of itch on quality of life among US military veterans was significantly higher in those who identified as non-White (P=.05).⁴¹ In another study of US military veterans, African American individuals reported a significantly higher emotional impact from itch (P<.05).⁴²

Lichenification—Lichenification is thickening of the skin due to chronic rubbing and scratching that causes a leathery elevated appearance with exaggerated skin lines.²⁷ Lichenification is included as a factor in common clinical scoring tools, with greater lichenification indicating greater disease severity. Studies from SEA and Africa suggested a higher prevalence of lichenification in AD patients.²⁸ A greater itch burden and thus increased rubbing/scratching in these populations may contribute to some of these findings.^42,43

Xerosis—Xerosis (or dry skin) is a common finding in AD that results from increased transepidermal water loss due to a dysfunctional epidermal barrier.⁴⁴ In a systematic review of AD characteristics by region, xerosis was among the top 5 most reported AD features globally in all regions except SEA.²⁸ Xerosis may be more stigmatizing in SOC populations because of the greater visibility of scaling and dryness on darker skin tones.¹

Postinflammatory Dyspigmentation—Postinflammatory pigment alteration may be a consequence of AD lesions, resulting in hyperpigmented and hypopigmented macules and patches. Patients with AD with darker skin tones are more likely to develop postinflammatory dyspigmentation.²⁶ A study of AD patients in Nigeria found that 63% displayed postinflammatory dyspigmentation.⁴⁵ Dyschromia, including postinflammatory hyperpigmentation, is one of the most common reasons for SOC patients to seek dermatologic care.⁴⁶ Postinflammatory pigment alteration can cause severe distress in patients, even more so than the cutaneous findings of AD. Although altered skin pigmentation usually returns to normal over weeks to months, skin depigmentation from chronic excoriation may be permanent.²⁶ Appropriately treating hyperpigmentation and hypopigmentation in SOC populations can greatly improve quality of life.⁴⁷

Conclusion

Atopic dermatitis is a cutaneous inflammatory disease that presents with many clinical phenotypes. Dermatologists should be trained to recognize the heterogeneous signs of AD present across the diverse skin types in SOC patients. Future research should move away from race-based analyses and focus on the complex interplay of environmental factors, social determinants of health, and skin pigmentation, as well as how these factors drive variations in AD lesional morphology and inflammation.

Atopic dermatitis (AD) is a chronic inflammatory disorder that affects individuals worldwide.¹ Although AD previously was commonly described as a skin-limited disease of childhood characterized by eczema in the flexural folds and pruritus, our current understanding supports a more heterogeneous condition.² We review the wide range of cutaneous presentations of AD with a focus on clinical and morphological presentations across diverse skin types—commonly referred to as skin of color (SOC).

Defining SOC in Relation to AD

The terms SOC, race, and ethnicity are used interchangeably, but their true meanings are distinct. Traditionally, race has been defined as a biological concept, grouping cohorts of individuals with a large degree of shared ancestry and genetic similarities,³ and ethnicity as a social construct, grouping individuals with common racial, national, tribal, religious, linguistic, or cultural backgrounds.⁴ In practice, both concepts can broadly be envisioned as mixed social, political, and economic constructs, as no one gene or biologic characteristic distinguishes one racial or ethnic group from another.⁵

The US Census Bureau recognizes 5 racial groupings: White, Black or African American, American Indian or Alaska Native, Asian, and Native Hawaiian or other Pacific Islander.⁶ Hispanic or Latinx origin is considered an ethnicity. It is important to note the limitations of these labels, as they do not completely encapsulate the heterogeneity of the US population. Overgeneralization of racial and ethnic categories may dull or obscure true differences among populations.⁷

From an evolutionary perspective, skin pigmentation represents the product of 2 opposing clines produced by natural selection in response to both need for and protection from UV radiation across lattitudes.⁸ Defining SOC is not quite as simple. Skin of color often is equated with certain racial/ethnic groups, or even binary categories of Black vs non-Black or White vs non-White. Others may use the Fitzpatrick scale to discuss SOC, though this scale was originally created to measure the response of skin to UVA radiation exposure.⁹ The reality is that SOC is a complex term that cannot simply be defined by a certain group of skin tones, races, ethnicities, and/or Fitzpatrick skin types. With this in mind, SOC in the context of this article will often refer to non-White individuals based on the investigators’ terminology, but this definition is not all-encompassing.

Historically in medicine, racial/ethnic differences in outcomes have been equated to differences in biology/genetics without consideration of many external factors.¹⁰ The effects of racism, economic stability, health care access, environment, and education quality rarely are discussed, though they have a major impact on health and may better define associations with race or an SOC population. A discussion of the structural and social determinants of health contributing to disease outcomes should accompany any race-based guidelines to prevent inaccurately pathologizing race or SOC.¹⁰

Within the scope of AD, social determinants of health play an important role in contributing to disease morbidity. Environmental factors, including tobacco smoke, climate, pollutants, water hardness, und urban living, are related to AD prevalence and severity.¹¹ Higher socioeconomic status is associated with increased AD rates,¹² yet lower socioeconomic status is associated with more severe disease.¹³ Barriers to health care access and suboptimal care drive worse AD outcomes.¹⁴ Underrepresentation in clinical trials prevents the generalizability and safety of AD treatments.¹⁵ Disparities in these health determinants associated with AD likely are among the most important drivers of observed differences in disease presentation, severity, burden, and even prevalence—more so than genetics or ancestry alone¹⁶—yet this relationship is poorly understood and often presented as a consequence of race. It is critical to redefine the narrative when considering the heterogeneous presentations of AD in patients with SOC and acknowledge the limitations of current terminology when attempting to capture clinical diversity in AD, including in this review, where published findings often are limited by race-based analysis.

Epidemiology

The prevalence of AD has been increasing over the last few decades, and rates vary by region. In the United States, the prevalence of childhood and adult AD is 13% and 7%, respectively.^17,18 Globally, higher rates of pediatric AD are seen in Africa, Oceania, Southeast Asia (SEA), and Latin America compared to South Asia, Northern Europe, and Eastern Europe.¹⁹ The prevalence of AD varies widely within the same continent and country; for example, throughout Africa, prevalence was found to be anywhere between 4.7% and 23.3%.²⁰

Although AD lesions often are described as pruritic erythematous papules and plaques, other common morphologies in SOC populations include prurigo nodules, lichenoid papules, perifollicular papules, nummular lesions, and psoriasiform lesions (Table). Instead of applying normative terms such as classic vs atypical to AD morphology, we urge clinicians to be familiar with the full spectrum of AD skin signs.

Prurigo Nodules—Prurigo nodules are hyperkeratotic or erosive nodules with severe pruritus, often grouped symmetrically on the extensor surfaces of the arms, legs, and trunk (Figure 1).^14,21 The skin between lesions usually is unaffected but can be dry or lichenified or display postinflammatory pigmentary changes.¹⁴ Prurigo nodules are common. In a study of a cohort of patients with prurigo nodularis (N=108), nearly half (46.3%) were determined to have either an atopic predisposition or underlying AD as a contributing cause of the lesions.²¹

Prurigo nodules as a phenotype of AD may be more common in certain SOC populations. Studies from SEA have reported a higher prevalence of prurigo nodules among patients with AD.²⁸ Although there are limited formal studies assessing the true prevalence of this lesion type in African American AD patients in the United States, clinical evidence supports more frequent appearance of prurigo nodules in non-White patients.²⁹ Contributing factors include suboptimal care for AD in SOC populations and/or barriers to health care access, resulting in more severe disease that increases the risk for this lesion type.¹⁴

Lichenoid Papules—Papular lichenoid lesions often present on the extensor surfaces of the arms and legs in AD (Figure 2).²² In a study of Nigerian patients with AD (N=1019), 54.1% had lichenoid papules.²⁴ A systematic review of AD characteristics by region similarly reported an increased prevalence of this lesion type in African studies.²⁸ Lichenoid variants of AD have been well described in SOC patients in the United States.²³ In contrast to the lesions of lichen planus, the lichenoid papules of AD usually are round, rarely display koebnerization, do not have Wickham striae, and predominantly are located on extensor surfaces.

Perifollicular Papules—Perifollicular accentuation—dermatitis enhanced around hair follicles—is a well-described lesional morphology of AD that is noted in all racial/ethnic groups (Figure 3).²² In fact, perifollicular accentuation is included as one of the Hanifin and Rajka minor criteria for AD.³⁰ Studies performed in Nigeria and India showed perifollicular accentuation in up to 70% of AD patients.^24,31 In a study of adult Thai patients (N=56), follicular lesions were found more frequently in intrinsic AD (29%) compared with extrinsic AD (12%).³²

Nummular and Psoriasiform Lesions—Nummular lesions may be red, oozing, excoriated, studded with pustules and/or present on the extensor extremities (Figure 4). In SOC patients, these lesions often occur in areas where hyperpigmentation is noted.²² Studies in the United States and Mexico demonstrated that 15% to 17% of AD patients displayed nummular lesions.^23,33 Similar to follicular papules, nummular lesions were linked to intrinsic AD in a study of adult Thai patients.³²

Psoriasiform lesions show prominent scaling, lichenification, and clear demarcation.²⁵ It has been reported that the psoriasiform phenotype of AD is more common in Asian patients,²⁵ though this is likely an oversimplification. The participants in these studies were of Japanese and Korean ancestry, which covers a broad geographic region, and the grouping of individuals under a heterogeneous Asian category is unlikely to convey generalizable biologic or clinical information. Unsurprisingly, a systematic review of AD characteristics by region noted considerable phenotypical differences among patients in SEA, East Asia, Iran, and India.²⁸

Disease Severity

Several factors contribute to AD disease severity,³⁴ including objective assessments of inflammation, such as erythema and lichenification (Table), as well as subjective measures of symptoms, such as itch. The severity of AD is exacerbated by the social determinants of health, and a lower socioeconomic status, lower household income, lower parental education level and health, dilapidated housing, and presence of garbage on the street are among factors linked to worse AD disease severity.^13,17 Although non-White individuals with AD often are reported to have more severe disease than their White counterparts,³⁵ these types of health determinants may be the most relevant causes of observed differences.

Erythema—Erythema is a feature of inflammation used in the AD severity assessment. Erythema may appear in shades beyond red, including maroon, violaceous, or brown, in patients with darker pigmented skin, which may contribute to diagnosis of AD at a later disease stage.²⁶ Multiple AD severity scoring tools, such as the SCORing Atopic Dermatitis and Eczema Area and Severity Index, include erythema as a measure, which can lead to underestimation of AD severity in SOC populations. After adjusting for erythema score, one study found that Black children with AD had a risk for severe disease that was 6-times higher than White children.³⁶ Dermatological training must adequately teach physicians to recognize erythema across all skin tones.³⁷

Erythroderma (also known as exfoliative dermatitis) is rapidly spreading erythema on at least 90% of the total body surface area, often sparing the palms and soles.³² Erythroderma is a potentially life-threatening manifestation of severe AD. Although erythroderma may have many underlying causes, AD has been reported to be the cause in 5% to 24% of cases,³⁸ and compared to studies in Europe, the prevalence of erythroderma was higher in East Asian studies of AD.²⁸

Excoriation and Pruritus—Pruritus is a defining characteristic of AD, and the resulting excoriations often are predominant on physical examination, which is a key part of severity scores. Itch is the most prevalent symptom among patients with AD, and a greater itch severity has been linked to decreased health-related quality of life, increased mental health symptoms, impaired sleep, and decreased daily function.^39,40 The burden of itch may be greater in SOC populations. The impact of itch on quality of life among US military veterans was significantly higher in those who identified as non-White (P=.05).⁴¹ In another study of US military veterans, African American individuals reported a significantly higher emotional impact from itch (P<.05).⁴²

Lichenification—Lichenification is thickening of the skin due to chronic rubbing and scratching that causes a leathery elevated appearance with exaggerated skin lines.²⁷ Lichenification is included as a factor in common clinical scoring tools, with greater lichenification indicating greater disease severity. Studies from SEA and Africa suggested a higher prevalence of lichenification in AD patients.²⁸ A greater itch burden and thus increased rubbing/scratching in these populations may contribute to some of these findings.^42,43

Xerosis—Xerosis (or dry skin) is a common finding in AD that results from increased transepidermal water loss due to a dysfunctional epidermal barrier.⁴⁴ In a systematic review of AD characteristics by region, xerosis was among the top 5 most reported AD features globally in all regions except SEA.²⁸ Xerosis may be more stigmatizing in SOC populations because of the greater visibility of scaling and dryness on darker skin tones.¹

Postinflammatory Dyspigmentation—Postinflammatory pigment alteration may be a consequence of AD lesions, resulting in hyperpigmented and hypopigmented macules and patches. Patients with AD with darker skin tones are more likely to develop postinflammatory dyspigmentation.²⁶ A study of AD patients in Nigeria found that 63% displayed postinflammatory dyspigmentation.⁴⁵ Dyschromia, including postinflammatory hyperpigmentation, is one of the most common reasons for SOC patients to seek dermatologic care.⁴⁶ Postinflammatory pigment alteration can cause severe distress in patients, even more so than the cutaneous findings of AD. Although altered skin pigmentation usually returns to normal over weeks to months, skin depigmentation from chronic excoriation may be permanent.²⁶ Appropriately treating hyperpigmentation and hypopigmentation in SOC populations can greatly improve quality of life.⁴⁷

Conclusion

Atopic dermatitis is a cutaneous inflammatory disease that presents with many clinical phenotypes. Dermatologists should be trained to recognize the heterogeneous signs of AD present across the diverse skin types in SOC patients. Future research should move away from race-based analyses and focus on the complex interplay of environmental factors, social determinants of health, and skin pigmentation, as well as how these factors drive variations in AD lesional morphology and inflammation.

Atopic dermatitis (AD) is a chronic inflammatory disorder that affects individuals worldwide.¹ Although AD previously was commonly described as a skin-limited disease of childhood characterized by eczema in the flexural folds and pruritus, our current understanding supports a more heterogeneous condition.² We review the wide range of cutaneous presentations of AD with a focus on clinical and morphological presentations across diverse skin types—commonly referred to as skin of color (SOC).

Defining SOC in Relation to AD

The terms SOC, race, and ethnicity are used interchangeably, but their true meanings are distinct. Traditionally, race has been defined as a biological concept, grouping cohorts of individuals with a large degree of shared ancestry and genetic similarities,³ and ethnicity as a social construct, grouping individuals with common racial, national, tribal, religious, linguistic, or cultural backgrounds.⁴ In practice, both concepts can broadly be envisioned as mixed social, political, and economic constructs, as no one gene or biologic characteristic distinguishes one racial or ethnic group from another.⁵

The US Census Bureau recognizes 5 racial groupings: White, Black or African American, American Indian or Alaska Native, Asian, and Native Hawaiian or other Pacific Islander.⁶ Hispanic or Latinx origin is considered an ethnicity. It is important to note the limitations of these labels, as they do not completely encapsulate the heterogeneity of the US population. Overgeneralization of racial and ethnic categories may dull or obscure true differences among populations.⁷

From an evolutionary perspective, skin pigmentation represents the product of 2 opposing clines produced by natural selection in response to both need for and protection from UV radiation across lattitudes.⁸ Defining SOC is not quite as simple. Skin of color often is equated with certain racial/ethnic groups, or even binary categories of Black vs non-Black or White vs non-White. Others may use the Fitzpatrick scale to discuss SOC, though this scale was originally created to measure the response of skin to UVA radiation exposure.⁹ The reality is that SOC is a complex term that cannot simply be defined by a certain group of skin tones, races, ethnicities, and/or Fitzpatrick skin types. With this in mind, SOC in the context of this article will often refer to non-White individuals based on the investigators’ terminology, but this definition is not all-encompassing.

Historically in medicine, racial/ethnic differences in outcomes have been equated to differences in biology/genetics without consideration of many external factors.¹⁰ The effects of racism, economic stability, health care access, environment, and education quality rarely are discussed, though they have a major impact on health and may better define associations with race or an SOC population. A discussion of the structural and social determinants of health contributing to disease outcomes should accompany any race-based guidelines to prevent inaccurately pathologizing race or SOC.¹⁰

Within the scope of AD, social determinants of health play an important role in contributing to disease morbidity. Environmental factors, including tobacco smoke, climate, pollutants, water hardness, und urban living, are related to AD prevalence and severity.¹¹ Higher socioeconomic status is associated with increased AD rates,¹² yet lower socioeconomic status is associated with more severe disease.¹³ Barriers to health care access and suboptimal care drive worse AD outcomes.¹⁴ Underrepresentation in clinical trials prevents the generalizability and safety of AD treatments.¹⁵ Disparities in these health determinants associated with AD likely are among the most important drivers of observed differences in disease presentation, severity, burden, and even prevalence—more so than genetics or ancestry alone¹⁶—yet this relationship is poorly understood and often presented as a consequence of race. It is critical to redefine the narrative when considering the heterogeneous presentations of AD in patients with SOC and acknowledge the limitations of current terminology when attempting to capture clinical diversity in AD, including in this review, where published findings often are limited by race-based analysis.

Epidemiology

The prevalence of AD has been increasing over the last few decades, and rates vary by region. In the United States, the prevalence of childhood and adult AD is 13% and 7%, respectively.^17,18 Globally, higher rates of pediatric AD are seen in Africa, Oceania, Southeast Asia (SEA), and Latin America compared to South Asia, Northern Europe, and Eastern Europe.¹⁹ The prevalence of AD varies widely within the same continent and country; for example, throughout Africa, prevalence was found to be anywhere between 4.7% and 23.3%.²⁰

Although AD lesions often are described as pruritic erythematous papules and plaques, other common morphologies in SOC populations include prurigo nodules, lichenoid papules, perifollicular papules, nummular lesions, and psoriasiform lesions (Table). Instead of applying normative terms such as classic vs atypical to AD morphology, we urge clinicians to be familiar with the full spectrum of AD skin signs.

Prurigo Nodules—Prurigo nodules are hyperkeratotic or erosive nodules with severe pruritus, often grouped symmetrically on the extensor surfaces of the arms, legs, and trunk (Figure 1).^14,21 The skin between lesions usually is unaffected but can be dry or lichenified or display postinflammatory pigmentary changes.¹⁴ Prurigo nodules are common. In a study of a cohort of patients with prurigo nodularis (N=108), nearly half (46.3%) were determined to have either an atopic predisposition or underlying AD as a contributing cause of the lesions.²¹

Prurigo nodules as a phenotype of AD may be more common in certain SOC populations. Studies from SEA have reported a higher prevalence of prurigo nodules among patients with AD.²⁸ Although there are limited formal studies assessing the true prevalence of this lesion type in African American AD patients in the United States, clinical evidence supports more frequent appearance of prurigo nodules in non-White patients.²⁹ Contributing factors include suboptimal care for AD in SOC populations and/or barriers to health care access, resulting in more severe disease that increases the risk for this lesion type.¹⁴

Lichenoid Papules—Papular lichenoid lesions often present on the extensor surfaces of the arms and legs in AD (Figure 2).²² In a study of Nigerian patients with AD (N=1019), 54.1% had lichenoid papules.²⁴ A systematic review of AD characteristics by region similarly reported an increased prevalence of this lesion type in African studies.²⁸ Lichenoid variants of AD have been well described in SOC patients in the United States.²³ In contrast to the lesions of lichen planus, the lichenoid papules of AD usually are round, rarely display koebnerization, do not have Wickham striae, and predominantly are located on extensor surfaces.

Perifollicular Papules—Perifollicular accentuation—dermatitis enhanced around hair follicles—is a well-described lesional morphology of AD that is noted in all racial/ethnic groups (Figure 3).²² In fact, perifollicular accentuation is included as one of the Hanifin and Rajka minor criteria for AD.³⁰ Studies performed in Nigeria and India showed perifollicular accentuation in up to 70% of AD patients.^24,31 In a study of adult Thai patients (N=56), follicular lesions were found more frequently in intrinsic AD (29%) compared with extrinsic AD (12%).³²

Nummular and Psoriasiform Lesions—Nummular lesions may be red, oozing, excoriated, studded with pustules and/or present on the extensor extremities (Figure 4). In SOC patients, these lesions often occur in areas where hyperpigmentation is noted.²² Studies in the United States and Mexico demonstrated that 15% to 17% of AD patients displayed nummular lesions.^23,33 Similar to follicular papules, nummular lesions were linked to intrinsic AD in a study of adult Thai patients.³²

Psoriasiform lesions show prominent scaling, lichenification, and clear demarcation.²⁵ It has been reported that the psoriasiform phenotype of AD is more common in Asian patients,²⁵ though this is likely an oversimplification. The participants in these studies were of Japanese and Korean ancestry, which covers a broad geographic region, and the grouping of individuals under a heterogeneous Asian category is unlikely to convey generalizable biologic or clinical information. Unsurprisingly, a systematic review of AD characteristics by region noted considerable phenotypical differences among patients in SEA, East Asia, Iran, and India.²⁸

Disease Severity

Several factors contribute to AD disease severity,³⁴ including objective assessments of inflammation, such as erythema and lichenification (Table), as well as subjective measures of symptoms, such as itch. The severity of AD is exacerbated by the social determinants of health, and a lower socioeconomic status, lower household income, lower parental education level and health, dilapidated housing, and presence of garbage on the street are among factors linked to worse AD disease severity.^13,17 Although non-White individuals with AD often are reported to have more severe disease than their White counterparts,³⁵ these types of health determinants may be the most relevant causes of observed differences.

Erythema—Erythema is a feature of inflammation used in the AD severity assessment. Erythema may appear in shades beyond red, including maroon, violaceous, or brown, in patients with darker pigmented skin, which may contribute to diagnosis of AD at a later disease stage.²⁶ Multiple AD severity scoring tools, such as the SCORing Atopic Dermatitis and Eczema Area and Severity Index, include erythema as a measure, which can lead to underestimation of AD severity in SOC populations. After adjusting for erythema score, one study found that Black children with AD had a risk for severe disease that was 6-times higher than White children.³⁶ Dermatological training must adequately teach physicians to recognize erythema across all skin tones.³⁷

Erythroderma (also known as exfoliative dermatitis) is rapidly spreading erythema on at least 90% of the total body surface area, often sparing the palms and soles.³² Erythroderma is a potentially life-threatening manifestation of severe AD. Although erythroderma may have many underlying causes, AD has been reported to be the cause in 5% to 24% of cases,³⁸ and compared to studies in Europe, the prevalence of erythroderma was higher in East Asian studies of AD.²⁸

Excoriation and Pruritus—Pruritus is a defining characteristic of AD, and the resulting excoriations often are predominant on physical examination, which is a key part of severity scores. Itch is the most prevalent symptom among patients with AD, and a greater itch severity has been linked to decreased health-related quality of life, increased mental health symptoms, impaired sleep, and decreased daily function.^39,40 The burden of itch may be greater in SOC populations. The impact of itch on quality of life among US military veterans was significantly higher in those who identified as non-White (P=.05).⁴¹ In another study of US military veterans, African American individuals reported a significantly higher emotional impact from itch (P<.05).⁴²

Lichenification—Lichenification is thickening of the skin due to chronic rubbing and scratching that causes a leathery elevated appearance with exaggerated skin lines.²⁷ Lichenification is included as a factor in common clinical scoring tools, with greater lichenification indicating greater disease severity. Studies from SEA and Africa suggested a higher prevalence of lichenification in AD patients.²⁸ A greater itch burden and thus increased rubbing/scratching in these populations may contribute to some of these findings.^42,43

Xerosis—Xerosis (or dry skin) is a common finding in AD that results from increased transepidermal water loss due to a dysfunctional epidermal barrier.⁴⁴ In a systematic review of AD characteristics by region, xerosis was among the top 5 most reported AD features globally in all regions except SEA.²⁸ Xerosis may be more stigmatizing in SOC populations because of the greater visibility of scaling and dryness on darker skin tones.¹

Postinflammatory Dyspigmentation—Postinflammatory pigment alteration may be a consequence of AD lesions, resulting in hyperpigmented and hypopigmented macules and patches. Patients with AD with darker skin tones are more likely to develop postinflammatory dyspigmentation.²⁶ A study of AD patients in Nigeria found that 63% displayed postinflammatory dyspigmentation.⁴⁵ Dyschromia, including postinflammatory hyperpigmentation, is one of the most common reasons for SOC patients to seek dermatologic care.⁴⁶ Postinflammatory pigment alteration can cause severe distress in patients, even more so than the cutaneous findings of AD. Although altered skin pigmentation usually returns to normal over weeks to months, skin depigmentation from chronic excoriation may be permanent.²⁶ Appropriately treating hyperpigmentation and hypopigmentation in SOC populations can greatly improve quality of life.⁴⁷

Conclusion

Atopic dermatitis is a cutaneous inflammatory disease that presents with many clinical phenotypes. Dermatologists should be trained to recognize the heterogeneous signs of AD present across the diverse skin types in SOC patients. Future research should move away from race-based analyses and focus on the complex interplay of environmental factors, social determinants of health, and skin pigmentation, as well as how these factors drive variations in AD lesional morphology and inflammation.

Black Americans attempt to quit smoking more often than their White counterparts but are less likely to succeed, and they pay the health consequences.

This knowledge has driven Kevin Choi, MD, acting scientific director of the National Institute on Minority Health and Health Disparities in Bethesda, Md., to dedicate his career to studying the patterns and disparities of smoking among these patients.

Dr. Choi wants primary care clinicians to know not just that they have the potential to educate patients on the harms of smoking – most patients already know smoking is unhealthy – but that aiding them will likely necessitate more assertive follow-up.

To do so, “we need to understand the bigger backdrop of racial and sociological stress experienced by the Black population, which stems from both interpersonal and structural racism,” Dr. Choi said.

Not only are Black smokers more likely to try to quit, but they also tend to smoke fewer cigarettes per day than other racial groups. Yet they experience higher rates of smoking-related mortality.
 

The reasons behind the attempts

Multiple factors play into Black smokers’ lower rates of successful quitting attempts than Asian, Hispanic, White, and Native American individuals.

One reason: An estimated 85% of Black smokers smoke highly addictive menthol cigarettes. According to Dr. Choi and other experts, the tobacco industry engages in targeted marketing of menthols by sponsoring community events in predominantly Black neighborhoods and colleges with historically Black populations and by using Black culture in advertising.

“The built environment really drives a change in behavior, and we have seen that chronically in the African American population being overly targeted and now being overly addicted to nicotine,” said Daniel Kortsch, MD, a family medicine physician and chair of the Tobacco Cessation Workgroup at Denver Health.

Menthol cigarettes are more addictive than traditional cigarettes, in part because they provide a less harsh feeling in the respiratory system, owing to anti-tussive, anti-irritant, and cooling properties that act as a cough suppressant and mask irritation and pain.

“You do not feel like you’re smoking that much or that it’s dangerous, and that’s exactly the reason why it’s harder to quit,” said Julia Adamian, MD, section chief of general internal medicine and clinical innovation at NYU Langone Tisch Hospital.

In addition, menthol cigarettes interact with the body in complex ways that make quitting harder, according to a study published in Nicotine & Tobacco Research. Menthol increases the amount of nicotine that the body absorbs and thus increases the risk of dependence on the drug.

According to Dr. Choi, rates of cigar and cigarillo use are higher among Black Americans, compared with other races, and these products are often left out of cessation programs. Smokers, regardless of race, may have a misguided belief that cigars and cigarillos are less harmful than cigarettes.

Research published in 2021 found that Black cigar smokers who were interested in cessation had not been asked by their health care provider if they smoked cigars, and those who were asked reported a lack of support for cessation.

Primary care providers should work to remove any misconceptions a patient has regarding the safety of cigarillos and cigars, Dr. Choi said.

These smokers are also at a disadvantage regarding cessation success because of the neighborhoods they may live in, according to Dr. Choi. Black Americans are more likely to earn less and to live in neighborhoods with lower housing values than other racial groups. Areas with more low-income households tend to have a higher density of tobacco outlets.

“If you’re trying to quit smoking, but you walk by three, four, or five gas stations, convenience stores, and other tobacco outlets with signs that advertise sales, it’s not going to make quitting easy,” Dr. Choi said.
 

Tailoring treatment to Black smokers

Considering the unique challenges Black patients may face in quitting, clinicians should provide more follow-up and consistent support, according to Dr. Adamian. The higher risk of tobacco-related death among Black smokers means clinicians need to be more aggressive in recommending every treatment possible if one treatment fails.

Pharmacotherapy, nicotine replacement therapy, and counseling are evidence-based options to help patients stop smoking.

Dr. Kortsch considers pharmacotherapy to be the most effective and evidence-based treatment for nicotine addiction. However, Black Americans are less likely than White smokers to try smoking cessation medications, and they express more suspicion about efficacy and potential addiction to the tools.

“African American populations simply do not use pharmacotherapy to the extent that other populations do to help them quit smoking; this is a problem,” Dr. Kortsch said.

Dr. Kortsch recommends the use of varenicline for all patients with nicotine addiction. He recommends varenicline in combination with tobacco replacement products such as lozenges, patches, gums, or inhalers if the patient is a heavy smoker as opposed to someone who has a few cigarettes on the weekends.

If a patient has anxiety or depression, Dr. Adamian advises initiating a pharmacologic treatment such as bupropion or varenicline more quickly, because mood disorders can hinder cessation.

Cessation counseling is another option, but clinicians may need to more thoroughly explain what it entails. According to Dr. Choi, Black patients may be more reluctant to try cessation counseling because of the negative stigma associated with the term “counseling.” But this treatment is not therapy – it involves identifying and coming up with strategies to manage smoking triggers and providing encouragement. Clinicians can eliminate any confusion patients may have between psychological therapy and cessation counseling.

“ ‘Counseling’ tends to have a somewhat negative connotation among racial minority populations, like you go to counseling because you’re crazy,” Dr. Choi said. “That needs to change.”

Clinicians also must clarify how each cessation tool works. For example, some patients may not realize that the nicotine patch isn’t an instant fix for a craving and that hours may pass before the user feels its effects, according to Dr. Choi.
 

Move past the ‘advise’ stage

While recommending to patients various forms of cessation, clinicians should be mindful of the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force’s guidelines for providers who treat patients who smoke. Those guidelines include a five-step process: Ask, Advise, Assess, Assist, and Arrange.

Dr. Choi said most providers stop at the “Advise” stage. In steps one and two, providers ask patients whether they smoke, then advise them to quit. Stage three involves asking whether or not a patient is ready to quit and where they are in their journey.

Clinicians shouldn’t give up when patients say they do not currently plan to quit. Instead, they can use the conversation to create an ongoing dialogue about the patient’s readiness to quit in future visits. Follow-up phone calls or text messages should be made 2-4 weeks after a patient makes an attempt to quit and at the same interval thereafter, Dr. Adamian advised.

“It takes a concerted effort on behalf of all people to be successful, and it is really uncommon for someone to be successful with only one attempt,” Dr. Kortsch said.

In a recent study published in the Journal of the American Medical Association, researchers identified three key factors that influence a Black smoker’s ability to stop smoking in early attempts. These factors have been shown to increase the chances of long-term cessation: fewer cigarettes per day, nonuse of other tobacco products, and lower levels of cotinine (a nicotine metabolite) at baseline.

“Using these predictors of early treatment response could allow providers to anticipate which smokers may benefit from a minimal, low-cost intervention and who may benefit from more intensive treatment,” said Eleanor Leavens, PhD, assistant professor in the department of population health at the University of Kansas School of Medicine, Kansas City, who led the study.

Dr. Leavens’ research also confirmed that early abstinence predicts long-term cessation success. Smokers who were able to forgo cigarettes within 2 weeks of their quit date were almost four times more likely to remain abstinent over the long term.

A quick phone call or message from the clinician or a staff member can help patients achieve early progress, enable changes in approach to quitting, and build a relationship with the patient, Dr. Adamian said.

“Have more empathy for what Black patients are going through,” Dr. Choi said. “Continue to cheer them on and to be a supporter of their smoking cessation journey.”

A version of this article first appeared on Medscape.com.

Black Americans attempt to quit smoking more often than their White counterparts but are less likely to succeed, and they pay the health consequences.

This knowledge has driven Kevin Choi, MD, acting scientific director of the National Institute on Minority Health and Health Disparities in Bethesda, Md., to dedicate his career to studying the patterns and disparities of smoking among these patients.

Dr. Choi wants primary care clinicians to know not just that they have the potential to educate patients on the harms of smoking – most patients already know smoking is unhealthy – but that aiding them will likely necessitate more assertive follow-up.

To do so, “we need to understand the bigger backdrop of racial and sociological stress experienced by the Black population, which stems from both interpersonal and structural racism,” Dr. Choi said.

Not only are Black smokers more likely to try to quit, but they also tend to smoke fewer cigarettes per day than other racial groups. Yet they experience higher rates of smoking-related mortality.
 

The reasons behind the attempts

Multiple factors play into Black smokers’ lower rates of successful quitting attempts than Asian, Hispanic, White, and Native American individuals.

One reason: An estimated 85% of Black smokers smoke highly addictive menthol cigarettes. According to Dr. Choi and other experts, the tobacco industry engages in targeted marketing of menthols by sponsoring community events in predominantly Black neighborhoods and colleges with historically Black populations and by using Black culture in advertising.

“The built environment really drives a change in behavior, and we have seen that chronically in the African American population being overly targeted and now being overly addicted to nicotine,” said Daniel Kortsch, MD, a family medicine physician and chair of the Tobacco Cessation Workgroup at Denver Health.

Menthol cigarettes are more addictive than traditional cigarettes, in part because they provide a less harsh feeling in the respiratory system, owing to anti-tussive, anti-irritant, and cooling properties that act as a cough suppressant and mask irritation and pain.

“You do not feel like you’re smoking that much or that it’s dangerous, and that’s exactly the reason why it’s harder to quit,” said Julia Adamian, MD, section chief of general internal medicine and clinical innovation at NYU Langone Tisch Hospital.

In addition, menthol cigarettes interact with the body in complex ways that make quitting harder, according to a study published in Nicotine & Tobacco Research. Menthol increases the amount of nicotine that the body absorbs and thus increases the risk of dependence on the drug.

According to Dr. Choi, rates of cigar and cigarillo use are higher among Black Americans, compared with other races, and these products are often left out of cessation programs. Smokers, regardless of race, may have a misguided belief that cigars and cigarillos are less harmful than cigarettes.

Research published in 2021 found that Black cigar smokers who were interested in cessation had not been asked by their health care provider if they smoked cigars, and those who were asked reported a lack of support for cessation.

Primary care providers should work to remove any misconceptions a patient has regarding the safety of cigarillos and cigars, Dr. Choi said.

These smokers are also at a disadvantage regarding cessation success because of the neighborhoods they may live in, according to Dr. Choi. Black Americans are more likely to earn less and to live in neighborhoods with lower housing values than other racial groups. Areas with more low-income households tend to have a higher density of tobacco outlets.

“If you’re trying to quit smoking, but you walk by three, four, or five gas stations, convenience stores, and other tobacco outlets with signs that advertise sales, it’s not going to make quitting easy,” Dr. Choi said.
 

Tailoring treatment to Black smokers

Considering the unique challenges Black patients may face in quitting, clinicians should provide more follow-up and consistent support, according to Dr. Adamian. The higher risk of tobacco-related death among Black smokers means clinicians need to be more aggressive in recommending every treatment possible if one treatment fails.

Pharmacotherapy, nicotine replacement therapy, and counseling are evidence-based options to help patients stop smoking.

Dr. Kortsch considers pharmacotherapy to be the most effective and evidence-based treatment for nicotine addiction. However, Black Americans are less likely than White smokers to try smoking cessation medications, and they express more suspicion about efficacy and potential addiction to the tools.

“African American populations simply do not use pharmacotherapy to the extent that other populations do to help them quit smoking; this is a problem,” Dr. Kortsch said.

Dr. Kortsch recommends the use of varenicline for all patients with nicotine addiction. He recommends varenicline in combination with tobacco replacement products such as lozenges, patches, gums, or inhalers if the patient is a heavy smoker as opposed to someone who has a few cigarettes on the weekends.

If a patient has anxiety or depression, Dr. Adamian advises initiating a pharmacologic treatment such as bupropion or varenicline more quickly, because mood disorders can hinder cessation.

Cessation counseling is another option, but clinicians may need to more thoroughly explain what it entails. According to Dr. Choi, Black patients may be more reluctant to try cessation counseling because of the negative stigma associated with the term “counseling.” But this treatment is not therapy – it involves identifying and coming up with strategies to manage smoking triggers and providing encouragement. Clinicians can eliminate any confusion patients may have between psychological therapy and cessation counseling.

“ ‘Counseling’ tends to have a somewhat negative connotation among racial minority populations, like you go to counseling because you’re crazy,” Dr. Choi said. “That needs to change.”

Clinicians also must clarify how each cessation tool works. For example, some patients may not realize that the nicotine patch isn’t an instant fix for a craving and that hours may pass before the user feels its effects, according to Dr. Choi.
 

Move past the ‘advise’ stage

While recommending to patients various forms of cessation, clinicians should be mindful of the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force’s guidelines for providers who treat patients who smoke. Those guidelines include a five-step process: Ask, Advise, Assess, Assist, and Arrange.

Dr. Choi said most providers stop at the “Advise” stage. In steps one and two, providers ask patients whether they smoke, then advise them to quit. Stage three involves asking whether or not a patient is ready to quit and where they are in their journey.

Clinicians shouldn’t give up when patients say they do not currently plan to quit. Instead, they can use the conversation to create an ongoing dialogue about the patient’s readiness to quit in future visits. Follow-up phone calls or text messages should be made 2-4 weeks after a patient makes an attempt to quit and at the same interval thereafter, Dr. Adamian advised.

“It takes a concerted effort on behalf of all people to be successful, and it is really uncommon for someone to be successful with only one attempt,” Dr. Kortsch said.

In a recent study published in the Journal of the American Medical Association, researchers identified three key factors that influence a Black smoker’s ability to stop smoking in early attempts. These factors have been shown to increase the chances of long-term cessation: fewer cigarettes per day, nonuse of other tobacco products, and lower levels of cotinine (a nicotine metabolite) at baseline.

“Using these predictors of early treatment response could allow providers to anticipate which smokers may benefit from a minimal, low-cost intervention and who may benefit from more intensive treatment,” said Eleanor Leavens, PhD, assistant professor in the department of population health at the University of Kansas School of Medicine, Kansas City, who led the study.

Dr. Leavens’ research also confirmed that early abstinence predicts long-term cessation success. Smokers who were able to forgo cigarettes within 2 weeks of their quit date were almost four times more likely to remain abstinent over the long term.

A quick phone call or message from the clinician or a staff member can help patients achieve early progress, enable changes in approach to quitting, and build a relationship with the patient, Dr. Adamian said.

“Have more empathy for what Black patients are going through,” Dr. Choi said. “Continue to cheer them on and to be a supporter of their smoking cessation journey.”

A version of this article first appeared on Medscape.com.

Black Americans attempt to quit smoking more often than their White counterparts but are less likely to succeed, and they pay the health consequences.

This knowledge has driven Kevin Choi, MD, acting scientific director of the National Institute on Minority Health and Health Disparities in Bethesda, Md., to dedicate his career to studying the patterns and disparities of smoking among these patients.

Dr. Choi wants primary care clinicians to know not just that they have the potential to educate patients on the harms of smoking – most patients already know smoking is unhealthy – but that aiding them will likely necessitate more assertive follow-up.

To do so, “we need to understand the bigger backdrop of racial and sociological stress experienced by the Black population, which stems from both interpersonal and structural racism,” Dr. Choi said.

Not only are Black smokers more likely to try to quit, but they also tend to smoke fewer cigarettes per day than other racial groups. Yet they experience higher rates of smoking-related mortality.
 

The reasons behind the attempts

Multiple factors play into Black smokers’ lower rates of successful quitting attempts than Asian, Hispanic, White, and Native American individuals.

One reason: An estimated 85% of Black smokers smoke highly addictive menthol cigarettes. According to Dr. Choi and other experts, the tobacco industry engages in targeted marketing of menthols by sponsoring community events in predominantly Black neighborhoods and colleges with historically Black populations and by using Black culture in advertising.

“The built environment really drives a change in behavior, and we have seen that chronically in the African American population being overly targeted and now being overly addicted to nicotine,” said Daniel Kortsch, MD, a family medicine physician and chair of the Tobacco Cessation Workgroup at Denver Health.

Menthol cigarettes are more addictive than traditional cigarettes, in part because they provide a less harsh feeling in the respiratory system, owing to anti-tussive, anti-irritant, and cooling properties that act as a cough suppressant and mask irritation and pain.

“You do not feel like you’re smoking that much or that it’s dangerous, and that’s exactly the reason why it’s harder to quit,” said Julia Adamian, MD, section chief of general internal medicine and clinical innovation at NYU Langone Tisch Hospital.

In addition, menthol cigarettes interact with the body in complex ways that make quitting harder, according to a study published in Nicotine & Tobacco Research. Menthol increases the amount of nicotine that the body absorbs and thus increases the risk of dependence on the drug.

According to Dr. Choi, rates of cigar and cigarillo use are higher among Black Americans, compared with other races, and these products are often left out of cessation programs. Smokers, regardless of race, may have a misguided belief that cigars and cigarillos are less harmful than cigarettes.

Research published in 2021 found that Black cigar smokers who were interested in cessation had not been asked by their health care provider if they smoked cigars, and those who were asked reported a lack of support for cessation.

Primary care providers should work to remove any misconceptions a patient has regarding the safety of cigarillos and cigars, Dr. Choi said.

These smokers are also at a disadvantage regarding cessation success because of the neighborhoods they may live in, according to Dr. Choi. Black Americans are more likely to earn less and to live in neighborhoods with lower housing values than other racial groups. Areas with more low-income households tend to have a higher density of tobacco outlets.

“If you’re trying to quit smoking, but you walk by three, four, or five gas stations, convenience stores, and other tobacco outlets with signs that advertise sales, it’s not going to make quitting easy,” Dr. Choi said.
 

Tailoring treatment to Black smokers

Considering the unique challenges Black patients may face in quitting, clinicians should provide more follow-up and consistent support, according to Dr. Adamian. The higher risk of tobacco-related death among Black smokers means clinicians need to be more aggressive in recommending every treatment possible if one treatment fails.

Pharmacotherapy, nicotine replacement therapy, and counseling are evidence-based options to help patients stop smoking.

Dr. Kortsch considers pharmacotherapy to be the most effective and evidence-based treatment for nicotine addiction. However, Black Americans are less likely than White smokers to try smoking cessation medications, and they express more suspicion about efficacy and potential addiction to the tools.

“African American populations simply do not use pharmacotherapy to the extent that other populations do to help them quit smoking; this is a problem,” Dr. Kortsch said.

Dr. Kortsch recommends the use of varenicline for all patients with nicotine addiction. He recommends varenicline in combination with tobacco replacement products such as lozenges, patches, gums, or inhalers if the patient is a heavy smoker as opposed to someone who has a few cigarettes on the weekends.

If a patient has anxiety or depression, Dr. Adamian advises initiating a pharmacologic treatment such as bupropion or varenicline more quickly, because mood disorders can hinder cessation.

Cessation counseling is another option, but clinicians may need to more thoroughly explain what it entails. According to Dr. Choi, Black patients may be more reluctant to try cessation counseling because of the negative stigma associated with the term “counseling.” But this treatment is not therapy – it involves identifying and coming up with strategies to manage smoking triggers and providing encouragement. Clinicians can eliminate any confusion patients may have between psychological therapy and cessation counseling.

“ ‘Counseling’ tends to have a somewhat negative connotation among racial minority populations, like you go to counseling because you’re crazy,” Dr. Choi said. “That needs to change.”

Clinicians also must clarify how each cessation tool works. For example, some patients may not realize that the nicotine patch isn’t an instant fix for a craving and that hours may pass before the user feels its effects, according to Dr. Choi.
 

Move past the ‘advise’ stage

While recommending to patients various forms of cessation, clinicians should be mindful of the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force’s guidelines for providers who treat patients who smoke. Those guidelines include a five-step process: Ask, Advise, Assess, Assist, and Arrange.

Dr. Choi said most providers stop at the “Advise” stage. In steps one and two, providers ask patients whether they smoke, then advise them to quit. Stage three involves asking whether or not a patient is ready to quit and where they are in their journey.

Clinicians shouldn’t give up when patients say they do not currently plan to quit. Instead, they can use the conversation to create an ongoing dialogue about the patient’s readiness to quit in future visits. Follow-up phone calls or text messages should be made 2-4 weeks after a patient makes an attempt to quit and at the same interval thereafter, Dr. Adamian advised.

“It takes a concerted effort on behalf of all people to be successful, and it is really uncommon for someone to be successful with only one attempt,” Dr. Kortsch said.

In a recent study published in the Journal of the American Medical Association, researchers identified three key factors that influence a Black smoker’s ability to stop smoking in early attempts. These factors have been shown to increase the chances of long-term cessation: fewer cigarettes per day, nonuse of other tobacco products, and lower levels of cotinine (a nicotine metabolite) at baseline.

“Using these predictors of early treatment response could allow providers to anticipate which smokers may benefit from a minimal, low-cost intervention and who may benefit from more intensive treatment,” said Eleanor Leavens, PhD, assistant professor in the department of population health at the University of Kansas School of Medicine, Kansas City, who led the study.

Dr. Leavens’ research also confirmed that early abstinence predicts long-term cessation success. Smokers who were able to forgo cigarettes within 2 weeks of their quit date were almost four times more likely to remain abstinent over the long term.

A quick phone call or message from the clinician or a staff member can help patients achieve early progress, enable changes in approach to quitting, and build a relationship with the patient, Dr. Adamian said.

“Have more empathy for what Black patients are going through,” Dr. Choi said. “Continue to cheer them on and to be a supporter of their smoking cessation journey.”

A version of this article first appeared on Medscape.com.

A teledermatology clinic pioneered by clinicians at George Washington University, Washington, to provide care for underserved populations will serve as a model for four other teledermatology clinics, according to a press release from the university.

Four institutions will receive grants to implement the George Washington University model, which involved partnering with a local organization to provide an entry point for individuals in areas with limited access to medical care, with support from Pfizer Global Medical Grants.

“Targeting those who lack access to quality-based care for inflammatory dermatologic conditions, including atopic dermatitis (AD) and others, the grants will reach communities in Miami-Dade County, Fla., Los Angeles County, Calif., rural communities in Oregon, and downtown Philadelphia,” according to the announcement. GW’s Teledermatology Free Clinic was conceived in the wake of the COVID-19 pandemic, which further highlighted disparities in access to dermatologic care, Adam Friedman, M.D., professor and chair of dermatology at George Washington University, said in the press release.

GW implemented its clinic for residents in underserved areas of Washington, D.C., in partnership with the Rodham Institute and the Temple of Praise Church. “We set up a free clinic at the church through which patients were integrated into the GW medical records system, provided instruction on telemedicine best practices, exposed to comprehensive education about AD and underwent a free telemedicine visit with a member of the department of dermatology,” Dr. Friedman explained.

Most participants – 70% – did not have a dermatologist, 94% were extremely satisfied with the experience, and 90% reported that the clinic had a significant impact on the management of their AD, according to the results of a recently published postengagement survey.

The following are the recipients of the “Quality Improvement Initiative: Bridging the Inflammatory Dermatosis Care Divide with Teledermatology Grant Program”:

• Scott Elman, MD, assistant professor of clinical dermatology and medical director of outpatient dermatology at the University of Miami and his team will create a clinic in partnership with Lotus House, a resource center and residential facility serving homeless women and infants, with focus on interventions in both English and Spanish.
• Nada Elbuluk, MD, associate professor of clinical dermatology and director of the Skin of Color and Pigmentary Disorders Program, at the University of Southern California, will lead a team to expand the role of two programs she created, Derm RISES, which targets inner city students, and Dermmunity, a community-based program that provides dermatology education to underserved communities in the Los Angeles area.
• Alex Ortega-Loayza, MD, associate professor of dermatology at Oregon Health & Science University and his team will partner with the Oregon Rural Practice-based Research Network to implement their teledermatology program at five clinics that serve different portions of rural and underserved communities across Oregon.
• Jules Lipoff, MD, clinical associate professor of dermatology, Temple University, Philadelphia, will lead a pilot program to establish a telemedicine dermatology clinic with Philadelphia FIGHT, a federally qualified health center in downtown Philadelphia where many patients lack high-speed Internet, and patients will be allowed direct access to telemedicine dermatology appointments within the primary care facility. The clinic’s patient population includes patients living with HIV, people who identify as LGBTQ+ and those who identify as trans or with a gender not matching their sex assigned at birth.

All four projects will complete postassessment surveys and quality assessment initiatives.

The GW clinic is ongoing, with plans for expansion and the establishment of additional programs with community partners in the Washington area, Dr. Friedman said in an interview.

“While these partnerships are in their infancy, I have high hopes that we will be able to impact even more individuals afflicted with dermatologic diseases and gain more insights into best practices for community engagement,” he added. “Many individuals who have come through our free clinic have followed up, by telehealth and/or in person at GW, depending on the clinical need to maintain continuity of care. In numerous cases, my impression is that this first point of contact is the key to ongoing treatment success, because it enables the access that may have been missing and engenders trust and confidence.”

A teledermatology clinic pioneered by clinicians at George Washington University, Washington, to provide care for underserved populations will serve as a model for four other teledermatology clinics, according to a press release from the university.

Four institutions will receive grants to implement the George Washington University model, which involved partnering with a local organization to provide an entry point for individuals in areas with limited access to medical care, with support from Pfizer Global Medical Grants.

“Targeting those who lack access to quality-based care for inflammatory dermatologic conditions, including atopic dermatitis (AD) and others, the grants will reach communities in Miami-Dade County, Fla., Los Angeles County, Calif., rural communities in Oregon, and downtown Philadelphia,” according to the announcement. GW’s Teledermatology Free Clinic was conceived in the wake of the COVID-19 pandemic, which further highlighted disparities in access to dermatologic care, Adam Friedman, M.D., professor and chair of dermatology at George Washington University, said in the press release.

GW implemented its clinic for residents in underserved areas of Washington, D.C., in partnership with the Rodham Institute and the Temple of Praise Church. “We set up a free clinic at the church through which patients were integrated into the GW medical records system, provided instruction on telemedicine best practices, exposed to comprehensive education about AD and underwent a free telemedicine visit with a member of the department of dermatology,” Dr. Friedman explained.

Most participants – 70% – did not have a dermatologist, 94% were extremely satisfied with the experience, and 90% reported that the clinic had a significant impact on the management of their AD, according to the results of a recently published postengagement survey.

The following are the recipients of the “Quality Improvement Initiative: Bridging the Inflammatory Dermatosis Care Divide with Teledermatology Grant Program”:

• Scott Elman, MD, assistant professor of clinical dermatology and medical director of outpatient dermatology at the University of Miami and his team will create a clinic in partnership with Lotus House, a resource center and residential facility serving homeless women and infants, with focus on interventions in both English and Spanish.
• Nada Elbuluk, MD, associate professor of clinical dermatology and director of the Skin of Color and Pigmentary Disorders Program, at the University of Southern California, will lead a team to expand the role of two programs she created, Derm RISES, which targets inner city students, and Dermmunity, a community-based program that provides dermatology education to underserved communities in the Los Angeles area.
• Alex Ortega-Loayza, MD, associate professor of dermatology at Oregon Health & Science University and his team will partner with the Oregon Rural Practice-based Research Network to implement their teledermatology program at five clinics that serve different portions of rural and underserved communities across Oregon.
• Jules Lipoff, MD, clinical associate professor of dermatology, Temple University, Philadelphia, will lead a pilot program to establish a telemedicine dermatology clinic with Philadelphia FIGHT, a federally qualified health center in downtown Philadelphia where many patients lack high-speed Internet, and patients will be allowed direct access to telemedicine dermatology appointments within the primary care facility. The clinic’s patient population includes patients living with HIV, people who identify as LGBTQ+ and those who identify as trans or with a gender not matching their sex assigned at birth.

All four projects will complete postassessment surveys and quality assessment initiatives.

The GW clinic is ongoing, with plans for expansion and the establishment of additional programs with community partners in the Washington area, Dr. Friedman said in an interview.

“While these partnerships are in their infancy, I have high hopes that we will be able to impact even more individuals afflicted with dermatologic diseases and gain more insights into best practices for community engagement,” he added. “Many individuals who have come through our free clinic have followed up, by telehealth and/or in person at GW, depending on the clinical need to maintain continuity of care. In numerous cases, my impression is that this first point of contact is the key to ongoing treatment success, because it enables the access that may have been missing and engenders trust and confidence.”

A teledermatology clinic pioneered by clinicians at George Washington University, Washington, to provide care for underserved populations will serve as a model for four other teledermatology clinics, according to a press release from the university.

Four institutions will receive grants to implement the George Washington University model, which involved partnering with a local organization to provide an entry point for individuals in areas with limited access to medical care, with support from Pfizer Global Medical Grants.

“Targeting those who lack access to quality-based care for inflammatory dermatologic conditions, including atopic dermatitis (AD) and others, the grants will reach communities in Miami-Dade County, Fla., Los Angeles County, Calif., rural communities in Oregon, and downtown Philadelphia,” according to the announcement. GW’s Teledermatology Free Clinic was conceived in the wake of the COVID-19 pandemic, which further highlighted disparities in access to dermatologic care, Adam Friedman, M.D., professor and chair of dermatology at George Washington University, said in the press release.

GW implemented its clinic for residents in underserved areas of Washington, D.C., in partnership with the Rodham Institute and the Temple of Praise Church. “We set up a free clinic at the church through which patients were integrated into the GW medical records system, provided instruction on telemedicine best practices, exposed to comprehensive education about AD and underwent a free telemedicine visit with a member of the department of dermatology,” Dr. Friedman explained.

Most participants – 70% – did not have a dermatologist, 94% were extremely satisfied with the experience, and 90% reported that the clinic had a significant impact on the management of their AD, according to the results of a recently published postengagement survey.

The following are the recipients of the “Quality Improvement Initiative: Bridging the Inflammatory Dermatosis Care Divide with Teledermatology Grant Program”:

• Scott Elman, MD, assistant professor of clinical dermatology and medical director of outpatient dermatology at the University of Miami and his team will create a clinic in partnership with Lotus House, a resource center and residential facility serving homeless women and infants, with focus on interventions in both English and Spanish.
• Nada Elbuluk, MD, associate professor of clinical dermatology and director of the Skin of Color and Pigmentary Disorders Program, at the University of Southern California, will lead a team to expand the role of two programs she created, Derm RISES, which targets inner city students, and Dermmunity, a community-based program that provides dermatology education to underserved communities in the Los Angeles area.
• Alex Ortega-Loayza, MD, associate professor of dermatology at Oregon Health & Science University and his team will partner with the Oregon Rural Practice-based Research Network to implement their teledermatology program at five clinics that serve different portions of rural and underserved communities across Oregon.
• Jules Lipoff, MD, clinical associate professor of dermatology, Temple University, Philadelphia, will lead a pilot program to establish a telemedicine dermatology clinic with Philadelphia FIGHT, a federally qualified health center in downtown Philadelphia where many patients lack high-speed Internet, and patients will be allowed direct access to telemedicine dermatology appointments within the primary care facility. The clinic’s patient population includes patients living with HIV, people who identify as LGBTQ+ and those who identify as trans or with a gender not matching their sex assigned at birth.

All four projects will complete postassessment surveys and quality assessment initiatives.

The GW clinic is ongoing, with plans for expansion and the establishment of additional programs with community partners in the Washington area, Dr. Friedman said in an interview.

“While these partnerships are in their infancy, I have high hopes that we will be able to impact even more individuals afflicted with dermatologic diseases and gain more insights into best practices for community engagement,” he added. “Many individuals who have come through our free clinic have followed up, by telehealth and/or in person at GW, depending on the clinical need to maintain continuity of care. In numerous cases, my impression is that this first point of contact is the key to ongoing treatment success, because it enables the access that may have been missing and engenders trust and confidence.”

The Food and Drug Administration is considering banning chemicals used in hair straightening products that have been linked to cancer.

The proposal specifies that formaldehyde would be banned, as well as other chemicals that release formaldehyde, such as methylene glycol. Using hair smoothing products containing formaldehyde and formaldehyde-releasing chemicals “is linked to short-term adverse health effects, such as sensitization reactions and breathing problems, and long-term adverse health effects, including an increased risk of certain cancers,” the proposal states.

One study published last year showed that repeated use of hair straightening products, also called relaxers, could more than double the risk of uterine cancer. Although that study didn’t find that the uterine cancer risk varied based on a person’s race, the researchers noted that women who are Black are among the most likely to use the products and tend to start using them at younger ages, compared with people of other races and ethnicities.

Hair straightening products have also been linked to elevated risks of hormone-sensitive cancers, such as breast cancer and ovarian cancer.

Rep. Ayanna Pressley (D-Mass.) and Rep. Shontel Brown (D-Ohio) applauded the proposed rule in a statement issued jointly on Oct. 6. “The FDA’s proposal to ban these harmful chemicals in hair straighteners and relaxers is a win for public health – especially the health of Black women who are disproportionately put at risk by these products as a result of systemic racism and anti–Black hair sentiment,” Rep. Pressley said The two congresswomen wrote a letter to the FDA earlier this year requesting the topic be investigated.

“Regardless of how we wear our hair, we should be allowed to show up in the world without putting our health at risk. I applaud the FDA for being responsive to our calls and advancing a rule that will help prevent manufacturers from making a profit at the expense of our health,” Rep. Pressley said in the statement. “The administration should finalize this rule without delay.”



A version of this article appeared on WebMD.com

The Food and Drug Administration is considering banning chemicals used in hair straightening products that have been linked to cancer.

The proposal specifies that formaldehyde would be banned, as well as other chemicals that release formaldehyde, such as methylene glycol. Using hair smoothing products containing formaldehyde and formaldehyde-releasing chemicals “is linked to short-term adverse health effects, such as sensitization reactions and breathing problems, and long-term adverse health effects, including an increased risk of certain cancers,” the proposal states.

One study published last year showed that repeated use of hair straightening products, also called relaxers, could more than double the risk of uterine cancer. Although that study didn’t find that the uterine cancer risk varied based on a person’s race, the researchers noted that women who are Black are among the most likely to use the products and tend to start using them at younger ages, compared with people of other races and ethnicities.

Hair straightening products have also been linked to elevated risks of hormone-sensitive cancers, such as breast cancer and ovarian cancer.

Rep. Ayanna Pressley (D-Mass.) and Rep. Shontel Brown (D-Ohio) applauded the proposed rule in a statement issued jointly on Oct. 6. “The FDA’s proposal to ban these harmful chemicals in hair straighteners and relaxers is a win for public health – especially the health of Black women who are disproportionately put at risk by these products as a result of systemic racism and anti–Black hair sentiment,” Rep. Pressley said The two congresswomen wrote a letter to the FDA earlier this year requesting the topic be investigated.

“Regardless of how we wear our hair, we should be allowed to show up in the world without putting our health at risk. I applaud the FDA for being responsive to our calls and advancing a rule that will help prevent manufacturers from making a profit at the expense of our health,” Rep. Pressley said in the statement. “The administration should finalize this rule without delay.”



A version of this article appeared on WebMD.com

The Food and Drug Administration is considering banning chemicals used in hair straightening products that have been linked to cancer.

The proposal specifies that formaldehyde would be banned, as well as other chemicals that release formaldehyde, such as methylene glycol. Using hair smoothing products containing formaldehyde and formaldehyde-releasing chemicals “is linked to short-term adverse health effects, such as sensitization reactions and breathing problems, and long-term adverse health effects, including an increased risk of certain cancers,” the proposal states.

One study published last year showed that repeated use of hair straightening products, also called relaxers, could more than double the risk of uterine cancer. Although that study didn’t find that the uterine cancer risk varied based on a person’s race, the researchers noted that women who are Black are among the most likely to use the products and tend to start using them at younger ages, compared with people of other races and ethnicities.

Hair straightening products have also been linked to elevated risks of hormone-sensitive cancers, such as breast cancer and ovarian cancer.

Rep. Ayanna Pressley (D-Mass.) and Rep. Shontel Brown (D-Ohio) applauded the proposed rule in a statement issued jointly on Oct. 6. “The FDA’s proposal to ban these harmful chemicals in hair straighteners and relaxers is a win for public health – especially the health of Black women who are disproportionately put at risk by these products as a result of systemic racism and anti–Black hair sentiment,” Rep. Pressley said The two congresswomen wrote a letter to the FDA earlier this year requesting the topic be investigated.

“Regardless of how we wear our hair, we should be allowed to show up in the world without putting our health at risk. I applaud the FDA for being responsive to our calls and advancing a rule that will help prevent manufacturers from making a profit at the expense of our health,” Rep. Pressley said in the statement. “The administration should finalize this rule without delay.”



A version of this article appeared on WebMD.com

HONOLULU – Sexual and gender minority (SGM) people are at increased risk for asthma severity, compared with non-SGM people, and asthma is especially exacerbated in SGM persons who use e-cigarettes compared with heterosexuals.

These findings come from a study of asthma severity among SGM people, with a special focus on the contribution of tobacco, reported Tugba Kaplan, MD, a resident in internal medicine at Luminis Health Anne Arundel Medical Center, Annapolis, Md.

“To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study assessing asthma severity among SGM people in a nationally representative longitudinal cohort study,” she said in an oral abstract session at the annual meeting of the American College of Chest Physicians (CHEST).

There has been only limited research on the health status and health needs of SGM people, and most of the studies conducted have focused on issues such as HIV/AIDS, sexual health, and substance use, not respiratory health, she said.
 

Following the PATH

Dr. Kaplan and colleagues drew on data from the Population Assessment of Tobacco and Health (PATH) Study, a nationally representative longitudinal cohort study with data on approximately 46,000 adults and adolescents in the United States.

The study uses self-reported data on tobacco use patterns; perceptions of risk and attitudes toward tobacco products; tobacco initiation, cessation, and relapse; and associated health outcomes.

The investigators combined data from three waves of the PATH Study, conducted from 2015 to 2019 on nonpregnant participants aged 18 years and older, and used mixed-effect logistic regression models to look for potential associations between sexual orientation and asthma severity.

They used standard definitions of asthma severity, based on lung function impairment measured by forced expiratory volume in 1 second and forced vital capacity, nighttime awakenings, use of a short-acting beta2-agonist for symptoms, interference with normal activity, and exacerbations requiring oral systemic corticosteroids.

The study also includes a sexual orientation question, asking participants, “do you consider yourself to be ...” with the options “straight, lesbian or gay, bisexual, something else, don’t know, or refused.”

Based on these responses, Dr. Kaplan and colleagues studied a total sample of 1,815 people who identify as SGM and 12,879 who identify as non-SGM.
 

Risks increased

In an analysis adjusted for age, sex, race/ethnicity, tobacco use, body mass index, physical activity, and asthma medication use, the authors found that, compared with non-SGM people, SGM respondents were significantly more likely to have had asthma attacks requiring steroid use in the past years (odds ratio, 1.47; 95% confidence interval, 1.01-2.15), asthma interfering with daily activities in the past month (OR, 1.33; CI, 1.10-1.61), and shortness of breath in any week over the 30 days (OR, 1.82; CI, 1.32-2.51). There was no significant difference between the groups in inhaler use over the past month, however.

They also found two interactions in the logistic regression models, one between urgent care visits and respondents who reported using both regular tobacco and e-cigarettes (dual users), and between exclusive e-cigarette use and waking up at night.

Among dual users, SGM respondents had a nearly fourfold greater risk for asthma attacks requiring urgent care visits, compared with non-SGM respondents (OR, 3.89; CI, 1.99-7.63). In contrast, among those who never used tobacco, there were no significant differences between the sexual orientation groups in regard to asthma attacks requiring urgent care visits.

Among those who reported using e-cigarettes exclusively, SGM respondents were nearly eight times more likely to report night awakening, compared with non-SGM users (OR, 7.81; CI, 2.93-20.8).

Among never users, in contrast, there was no significant difference in nighttime disturbances.
 

Possible confounders

The data suggest that “in the context of chronic illnesses like asthma, it is crucial to offer patients the knowledge and tools required to proficiently handle their conditions,” Dr. Kaplan said, adding that the differences seen between SGM and non-SGM respondents may be caused by health care disparities among SGM people that result in nonadherence to regular follow-ups.

In an interview, Jean Bourbeau, MD, MSc, who was a moderator for the session but was not involved in the study, commented that “we have to be very careful before making any conclusions, because this population could be at high risk for different reasons, and especially, do they get the same attention in terms of the care that is provided to the general population, and do they get access to the same medication?”

Nonetheless, Dr. Bourbeau continued, “I think this study is very important, because it shows us how much awareness we need to determine differences in populations, and [sexual orientation] is probably one thing that nobody had considered before, and for the first time we are now considering these potential differences in our population.”

The authors did not report a study funding source. Dr. Kaplan and Dr. Bourbeau reported having no relevant financial relationships.

A version of this article first appeared on Medscape.com.

HONOLULU – Sexual and gender minority (SGM) people are at increased risk for asthma severity, compared with non-SGM people, and asthma is especially exacerbated in SGM persons who use e-cigarettes compared with heterosexuals.

These findings come from a study of asthma severity among SGM people, with a special focus on the contribution of tobacco, reported Tugba Kaplan, MD, a resident in internal medicine at Luminis Health Anne Arundel Medical Center, Annapolis, Md.

“To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study assessing asthma severity among SGM people in a nationally representative longitudinal cohort study,” she said in an oral abstract session at the annual meeting of the American College of Chest Physicians (CHEST).

There has been only limited research on the health status and health needs of SGM people, and most of the studies conducted have focused on issues such as HIV/AIDS, sexual health, and substance use, not respiratory health, she said.
 

Following the PATH

Dr. Kaplan and colleagues drew on data from the Population Assessment of Tobacco and Health (PATH) Study, a nationally representative longitudinal cohort study with data on approximately 46,000 adults and adolescents in the United States.

The study uses self-reported data on tobacco use patterns; perceptions of risk and attitudes toward tobacco products; tobacco initiation, cessation, and relapse; and associated health outcomes.

The investigators combined data from three waves of the PATH Study, conducted from 2015 to 2019 on nonpregnant participants aged 18 years and older, and used mixed-effect logistic regression models to look for potential associations between sexual orientation and asthma severity.

They used standard definitions of asthma severity, based on lung function impairment measured by forced expiratory volume in 1 second and forced vital capacity, nighttime awakenings, use of a short-acting beta2-agonist for symptoms, interference with normal activity, and exacerbations requiring oral systemic corticosteroids.

The study also includes a sexual orientation question, asking participants, “do you consider yourself to be ...” with the options “straight, lesbian or gay, bisexual, something else, don’t know, or refused.”

Based on these responses, Dr. Kaplan and colleagues studied a total sample of 1,815 people who identify as SGM and 12,879 who identify as non-SGM.
 

Risks increased

In an analysis adjusted for age, sex, race/ethnicity, tobacco use, body mass index, physical activity, and asthma medication use, the authors found that, compared with non-SGM people, SGM respondents were significantly more likely to have had asthma attacks requiring steroid use in the past years (odds ratio, 1.47; 95% confidence interval, 1.01-2.15), asthma interfering with daily activities in the past month (OR, 1.33; CI, 1.10-1.61), and shortness of breath in any week over the 30 days (OR, 1.82; CI, 1.32-2.51). There was no significant difference between the groups in inhaler use over the past month, however.

They also found two interactions in the logistic regression models, one between urgent care visits and respondents who reported using both regular tobacco and e-cigarettes (dual users), and between exclusive e-cigarette use and waking up at night.

Among dual users, SGM respondents had a nearly fourfold greater risk for asthma attacks requiring urgent care visits, compared with non-SGM respondents (OR, 3.89; CI, 1.99-7.63). In contrast, among those who never used tobacco, there were no significant differences between the sexual orientation groups in regard to asthma attacks requiring urgent care visits.

Among those who reported using e-cigarettes exclusively, SGM respondents were nearly eight times more likely to report night awakening, compared with non-SGM users (OR, 7.81; CI, 2.93-20.8).

Among never users, in contrast, there was no significant difference in nighttime disturbances.
 

Possible confounders

The data suggest that “in the context of chronic illnesses like asthma, it is crucial to offer patients the knowledge and tools required to proficiently handle their conditions,” Dr. Kaplan said, adding that the differences seen between SGM and non-SGM respondents may be caused by health care disparities among SGM people that result in nonadherence to regular follow-ups.

In an interview, Jean Bourbeau, MD, MSc, who was a moderator for the session but was not involved in the study, commented that “we have to be very careful before making any conclusions, because this population could be at high risk for different reasons, and especially, do they get the same attention in terms of the care that is provided to the general population, and do they get access to the same medication?”

Nonetheless, Dr. Bourbeau continued, “I think this study is very important, because it shows us how much awareness we need to determine differences in populations, and [sexual orientation] is probably one thing that nobody had considered before, and for the first time we are now considering these potential differences in our population.”

The authors did not report a study funding source. Dr. Kaplan and Dr. Bourbeau reported having no relevant financial relationships.

A version of this article first appeared on Medscape.com.

HONOLULU – Sexual and gender minority (SGM) people are at increased risk for asthma severity, compared with non-SGM people, and asthma is especially exacerbated in SGM persons who use e-cigarettes compared with heterosexuals.

These findings come from a study of asthma severity among SGM people, with a special focus on the contribution of tobacco, reported Tugba Kaplan, MD, a resident in internal medicine at Luminis Health Anne Arundel Medical Center, Annapolis, Md.

“To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study assessing asthma severity among SGM people in a nationally representative longitudinal cohort study,” she said in an oral abstract session at the annual meeting of the American College of Chest Physicians (CHEST).

There has been only limited research on the health status and health needs of SGM people, and most of the studies conducted have focused on issues such as HIV/AIDS, sexual health, and substance use, not respiratory health, she said.
 

Following the PATH

Dr. Kaplan and colleagues drew on data from the Population Assessment of Tobacco and Health (PATH) Study, a nationally representative longitudinal cohort study with data on approximately 46,000 adults and adolescents in the United States.

The study uses self-reported data on tobacco use patterns; perceptions of risk and attitudes toward tobacco products; tobacco initiation, cessation, and relapse; and associated health outcomes.

The investigators combined data from three waves of the PATH Study, conducted from 2015 to 2019 on nonpregnant participants aged 18 years and older, and used mixed-effect logistic regression models to look for potential associations between sexual orientation and asthma severity.

They used standard definitions of asthma severity, based on lung function impairment measured by forced expiratory volume in 1 second and forced vital capacity, nighttime awakenings, use of a short-acting beta2-agonist for symptoms, interference with normal activity, and exacerbations requiring oral systemic corticosteroids.

The study also includes a sexual orientation question, asking participants, “do you consider yourself to be ...” with the options “straight, lesbian or gay, bisexual, something else, don’t know, or refused.”

Based on these responses, Dr. Kaplan and colleagues studied a total sample of 1,815 people who identify as SGM and 12,879 who identify as non-SGM.
 

Risks increased

In an analysis adjusted for age, sex, race/ethnicity, tobacco use, body mass index, physical activity, and asthma medication use, the authors found that, compared with non-SGM people, SGM respondents were significantly more likely to have had asthma attacks requiring steroid use in the past years (odds ratio, 1.47; 95% confidence interval, 1.01-2.15), asthma interfering with daily activities in the past month (OR, 1.33; CI, 1.10-1.61), and shortness of breath in any week over the 30 days (OR, 1.82; CI, 1.32-2.51). There was no significant difference between the groups in inhaler use over the past month, however.

They also found two interactions in the logistic regression models, one between urgent care visits and respondents who reported using both regular tobacco and e-cigarettes (dual users), and between exclusive e-cigarette use and waking up at night.

Among dual users, SGM respondents had a nearly fourfold greater risk for asthma attacks requiring urgent care visits, compared with non-SGM respondents (OR, 3.89; CI, 1.99-7.63). In contrast, among those who never used tobacco, there were no significant differences between the sexual orientation groups in regard to asthma attacks requiring urgent care visits.

Among those who reported using e-cigarettes exclusively, SGM respondents were nearly eight times more likely to report night awakening, compared with non-SGM users (OR, 7.81; CI, 2.93-20.8).

Among never users, in contrast, there was no significant difference in nighttime disturbances.
 

Possible confounders

The data suggest that “in the context of chronic illnesses like asthma, it is crucial to offer patients the knowledge and tools required to proficiently handle their conditions,” Dr. Kaplan said, adding that the differences seen between SGM and non-SGM respondents may be caused by health care disparities among SGM people that result in nonadherence to regular follow-ups.

In an interview, Jean Bourbeau, MD, MSc, who was a moderator for the session but was not involved in the study, commented that “we have to be very careful before making any conclusions, because this population could be at high risk for different reasons, and especially, do they get the same attention in terms of the care that is provided to the general population, and do they get access to the same medication?”

Nonetheless, Dr. Bourbeau continued, “I think this study is very important, because it shows us how much awareness we need to determine differences in populations, and [sexual orientation] is probably one thing that nobody had considered before, and for the first time we are now considering these potential differences in our population.”

The authors did not report a study funding source. Dr. Kaplan and Dr. Bourbeau reported having no relevant financial relationships.

A version of this article first appeared on Medscape.com.

Lack of time for self-care and rest are particularly harmful to women’s health. Various speakers at the VII National Conference of the Onda Foundation, Italy’s National Observatory for Women and Gender’s Health, focused on this topic. The conference was dedicated to the social factors that determine health within the context of gender medicine.

In our society, housework and raising a family are responsibilities placed predominantly on the shoulders of women. These responsibilities contribute significantly to women’s daily workload. The most overburdened women are working mothers (according to ISTAT, Italy’s Office for National Statistics, 2019), who are forced to combine their professional responsibilities with family life, dedicating 8 hours and 20 minutes per day to paid and unpaid work overall, compared with the 7 hours and 29 minutes spent by working fathers. Working mothers between ages 25 and 44 years have on average 2 hours and 35 minutes of free time per day.
 

Stress and sleep deprivation

“Under these conditions, the risk of chronic stress is raised, and stress leads to depression. The rate of depression in the female population is double that of the male population,” said Claudio Mencacci, MD, chair of the Italian Society of Neuropsychopharmacology and the Onda Foundation. “What’s more, stress increases the risk of cardiovascular and metabolic diseases, asthma, arthritis, and autoimmune diseases.”

The one thing that is especially damaging to physical and mental health is sleep deprivation, and working mothers get less sleep than do working fathers. “This is partially due to biological factors: hormonal changes that take place toward the end of adolescence in women during the premenstrual period are responsible for an increased rate of sleep disturbance and insomnia,” said Dr. Mencacci. “During pregnancy and the postpartum period, female sex hormones make sleep lighter, reducing time spent in the REM sleep stage. Then there’s the social aspect that plays a decisive role: by and large, it’s mothers who take care of the youngest children at night.”

According to a 2019 German study, during the first 6 years of life of the first child, a mother loses on average 44 minutes sleep per night, compared with the average time spent sleeping before pregnancy; a father loses 14 minutes.

“Another aspect to bear in mind is that, for cultural reasons, women tend to overlook the issue and not seek help, deeming sleep deprivation normal,” said Dr. Mencacci.
 

Caregivers at greatest risk

The negative effects of stress are evident in people continuously caring for a dependent older or disabled family member, so-called caregivers. This is, “A group predominantly made up of women aged between 45 and 55 years,” said Marina Petrini, PhD, of the Italian Health Institute’s Gender Medicine Center of Excellence. Dr. Petrini coordinated a study on stress and health in family caregivers.

“The results obtained reveal a high level of stress, especially among female caregivers, who are more exposed to the risk of severe symptoms of depression, physical disorders, especially those affecting the nervous and immune systems, and who tend to adopt irregular eating patterns and sedentary habits,” said Dr. Petrini.
 

Limited treatment access

Another study presented at the Onda Foundation’s conference, which shows just how much a lack of “me time” can damage your health, is the Access to Diagnostic Medicine and Treatment by Region: the Patient’s Perspective Survey, conducted by market research agency Elma Research on a sample of cancer patients requiring specialist treatment.

“Forty percent of them had to move to a different region from the one they live in to get the care they needed,” said Massimo Massagrande, CEO of Elma Research. “Of that group, 40% had to move to an area not neighboring their own. The impact of area of residence is heavy, in terms of money and logistics – so much so that a large proportion of patients interviewed were forced to turn their back on the best available treatments. For women responding to our survey, the biggest obstacle is the impossibility of reconciling the effects of a move or the prospective of a temporary transfer to another region with their responsibilities for looking after their family.”

This article was translated from Univadis Italy. A version appeared on Medscape.com.

Lack of time for self-care and rest are particularly harmful to women’s health. Various speakers at the VII National Conference of the Onda Foundation, Italy’s National Observatory for Women and Gender’s Health, focused on this topic. The conference was dedicated to the social factors that determine health within the context of gender medicine.

In our society, housework and raising a family are responsibilities placed predominantly on the shoulders of women. These responsibilities contribute significantly to women’s daily workload. The most overburdened women are working mothers (according to ISTAT, Italy’s Office for National Statistics, 2019), who are forced to combine their professional responsibilities with family life, dedicating 8 hours and 20 minutes per day to paid and unpaid work overall, compared with the 7 hours and 29 minutes spent by working fathers. Working mothers between ages 25 and 44 years have on average 2 hours and 35 minutes of free time per day.
 

Stress and sleep deprivation

“Under these conditions, the risk of chronic stress is raised, and stress leads to depression. The rate of depression in the female population is double that of the male population,” said Claudio Mencacci, MD, chair of the Italian Society of Neuropsychopharmacology and the Onda Foundation. “What’s more, stress increases the risk of cardiovascular and metabolic diseases, asthma, arthritis, and autoimmune diseases.”

The one thing that is especially damaging to physical and mental health is sleep deprivation, and working mothers get less sleep than do working fathers. “This is partially due to biological factors: hormonal changes that take place toward the end of adolescence in women during the premenstrual period are responsible for an increased rate of sleep disturbance and insomnia,” said Dr. Mencacci. “During pregnancy and the postpartum period, female sex hormones make sleep lighter, reducing time spent in the REM sleep stage. Then there’s the social aspect that plays a decisive role: by and large, it’s mothers who take care of the youngest children at night.”

According to a 2019 German study, during the first 6 years of life of the first child, a mother loses on average 44 minutes sleep per night, compared with the average time spent sleeping before pregnancy; a father loses 14 minutes.

“Another aspect to bear in mind is that, for cultural reasons, women tend to overlook the issue and not seek help, deeming sleep deprivation normal,” said Dr. Mencacci.
 

Caregivers at greatest risk

The negative effects of stress are evident in people continuously caring for a dependent older or disabled family member, so-called caregivers. This is, “A group predominantly made up of women aged between 45 and 55 years,” said Marina Petrini, PhD, of the Italian Health Institute’s Gender Medicine Center of Excellence. Dr. Petrini coordinated a study on stress and health in family caregivers.

“The results obtained reveal a high level of stress, especially among female caregivers, who are more exposed to the risk of severe symptoms of depression, physical disorders, especially those affecting the nervous and immune systems, and who tend to adopt irregular eating patterns and sedentary habits,” said Dr. Petrini.
 

Limited treatment access

Another study presented at the Onda Foundation’s conference, which shows just how much a lack of “me time” can damage your health, is the Access to Diagnostic Medicine and Treatment by Region: the Patient’s Perspective Survey, conducted by market research agency Elma Research on a sample of cancer patients requiring specialist treatment.

“Forty percent of them had to move to a different region from the one they live in to get the care they needed,” said Massimo Massagrande, CEO of Elma Research. “Of that group, 40% had to move to an area not neighboring their own. The impact of area of residence is heavy, in terms of money and logistics – so much so that a large proportion of patients interviewed were forced to turn their back on the best available treatments. For women responding to our survey, the biggest obstacle is the impossibility of reconciling the effects of a move or the prospective of a temporary transfer to another region with their responsibilities for looking after their family.”

This article was translated from Univadis Italy. A version appeared on Medscape.com.

Lack of time for self-care and rest are particularly harmful to women’s health. Various speakers at the VII National Conference of the Onda Foundation, Italy’s National Observatory for Women and Gender’s Health, focused on this topic. The conference was dedicated to the social factors that determine health within the context of gender medicine.

In our society, housework and raising a family are responsibilities placed predominantly on the shoulders of women. These responsibilities contribute significantly to women’s daily workload. The most overburdened women are working mothers (according to ISTAT, Italy’s Office for National Statistics, 2019), who are forced to combine their professional responsibilities with family life, dedicating 8 hours and 20 minutes per day to paid and unpaid work overall, compared with the 7 hours and 29 minutes spent by working fathers. Working mothers between ages 25 and 44 years have on average 2 hours and 35 minutes of free time per day.
 

Stress and sleep deprivation

“Under these conditions, the risk of chronic stress is raised, and stress leads to depression. The rate of depression in the female population is double that of the male population,” said Claudio Mencacci, MD, chair of the Italian Society of Neuropsychopharmacology and the Onda Foundation. “What’s more, stress increases the risk of cardiovascular and metabolic diseases, asthma, arthritis, and autoimmune diseases.”

The one thing that is especially damaging to physical and mental health is sleep deprivation, and working mothers get less sleep than do working fathers. “This is partially due to biological factors: hormonal changes that take place toward the end of adolescence in women during the premenstrual period are responsible for an increased rate of sleep disturbance and insomnia,” said Dr. Mencacci. “During pregnancy and the postpartum period, female sex hormones make sleep lighter, reducing time spent in the REM sleep stage. Then there’s the social aspect that plays a decisive role: by and large, it’s mothers who take care of the youngest children at night.”

According to a 2019 German study, during the first 6 years of life of the first child, a mother loses on average 44 minutes sleep per night, compared with the average time spent sleeping before pregnancy; a father loses 14 minutes.

“Another aspect to bear in mind is that, for cultural reasons, women tend to overlook the issue and not seek help, deeming sleep deprivation normal,” said Dr. Mencacci.
 

Caregivers at greatest risk

The negative effects of stress are evident in people continuously caring for a dependent older or disabled family member, so-called caregivers. This is, “A group predominantly made up of women aged between 45 and 55 years,” said Marina Petrini, PhD, of the Italian Health Institute’s Gender Medicine Center of Excellence. Dr. Petrini coordinated a study on stress and health in family caregivers.

“The results obtained reveal a high level of stress, especially among female caregivers, who are more exposed to the risk of severe symptoms of depression, physical disorders, especially those affecting the nervous and immune systems, and who tend to adopt irregular eating patterns and sedentary habits,” said Dr. Petrini.
 

Limited treatment access

Another study presented at the Onda Foundation’s conference, which shows just how much a lack of “me time” can damage your health, is the Access to Diagnostic Medicine and Treatment by Region: the Patient’s Perspective Survey, conducted by market research agency Elma Research on a sample of cancer patients requiring specialist treatment.

“Forty percent of them had to move to a different region from the one they live in to get the care they needed,” said Massimo Massagrande, CEO of Elma Research. “Of that group, 40% had to move to an area not neighboring their own. The impact of area of residence is heavy, in terms of money and logistics – so much so that a large proportion of patients interviewed were forced to turn their back on the best available treatments. For women responding to our survey, the biggest obstacle is the impossibility of reconciling the effects of a move or the prospective of a temporary transfer to another region with their responsibilities for looking after their family.”

This article was translated from Univadis Italy. A version appeared on Medscape.com.